Managerial Accounting

管理会計

内部利用者向け。GAAPに準拠する義務なし

Managerial accounting provides information for internal decision-making and is not required to follow GAAP.

Direct Materials (DM)

直接材料費

製品に直接紐づけられる材料費

The wood used in making furniture is classified as direct materials.

Direct Labor (DL)

直接労務費

製品製造に直接従事する作業者の人件費

Wages paid to assembly line workers are classified as direct labor.

Factory Overhead (FOH)

製造間接費

DM・DL以外の全ての製造コスト。配賦が必要

Factory rent, utilities, and indirect labor are all components of factory overhead.

Product Cost

製品原価

DM + DL + FOH。売れるまでBS上の棚卸資産

Product costs are inventoriable and become COGS only when the product is sold.

Period Cost

期間原価

SGA。発生した期にIS上の費用として計上

Advertising expense is a period cost expensed in the period incurred.

Prime Cost

素価

DM + DL。製品に直接紐づく原価

Prime cost equals the sum of direct materials and direct labor.

Conversion Cost

加工費

DL + FOH。材料を製品に変換するための原価

Conversion costs include direct labor and factory overhead.

Cost of Goods Manufactured (COGM)

当期製造原価

Beg WIP + DM + DL + FOH - End WIP

COGM represents the total cost of goods completed during the period.

Predetermined Overhead Rate

予定配賦率

予定FOH / 予定配賦基準量。期首に設定

The predetermined overhead rate is calculated at the beginning of the year and used throughout.

Over-applied Overhead

過大配賦

配賦額 > 実際額。COGSを減少させる

Over-applied overhead means more FOH was allocated than actually incurred.

Under-applied Overhead

過少配賦

配賦額 < 実際額。COGSを増加させる

Under-applied overhead increases COGS because not enough FOH was allocated to products.

Activity-Based Costing (ABC)

活動基準原価計算

活動ごとにコストドライバーを設定して配賦

ABC assigns overhead costs based on multiple cost drivers such as setup hours and inspections.

Cost Driver

コストドライバー

活動の消費量を測定する基準

Machine hours and number of setups are common cost drivers in ABC.

Cost Pool

コストプール

同じコストドライバーで配賦される原価の集まり

A cost pool accumulates all costs associated with a single activity, such as quality inspection.

Normal Spoilage

正常仕損

通常の製造で避けられない仕損。製品原価に含める

Normal spoilage is considered a product cost and absorbed by good units.

Abnormal Spoilage

異常仕損

予期しない仕損。期間費用（Loss）として処理

Abnormal spoilage is charged as a loss in the period it occurs.

Normal Capacity

正常操業度

過去数年の平均操業度。最も一般的に使用

Normal capacity is the most commonly used denominator for calculating the predetermined overhead rate.

Work-in-Process (WIP)

仕掛品

製造途中の未完成品。BSの棚卸資産

Work-in-process inventory represents partially completed goods on the balance sheet.

Indirect Labor

間接労務費

工場長や品質検査員の給料。FOHに分類

The factory supervisor's salary is classified as indirect labor, a component of FOH.

Job Order Costing

個別原価計算

Job（注文）単位で原価を個別に追跡

Construction companies use job order costing to track costs for each building project.

Process Costing

総合原価計算

工程単位で原価を集計。同種大量生産向け

A chemical plant uses process costing because it produces homogeneous products continuously.

Equivalent Units (EU)

完成品換算量

仕掛品を完成品何個分に換算した量

200 units at 50% completion equal 100 equivalent units of conversion cost.

Weighted-Average Method

加重平均法

Beg WIP原価と当期投入を合算して単位原価算出

The weighted-average method combines beginning WIP costs with current period costs.

FIFO Method

先入先出法

当期投入分のみで単位原価を算出

FIFO separates beginning WIP costs from current period costs to measure current period efficiency.

Job Cost Sheet

個別原価計算票

各Jobの原価を集計する帳票

The job cost sheet tracks direct materials, direct labor, and applied overhead for each job.

Material Requisition

材料出庫伝票

特定のJobに材料を出庫する際の帳票

A material requisition form authorizes the release of materials from the warehouse to a specific job.

Joint Cost

結合原価

分離点以前の共通コスト。Sunk Cost

Joint costs are incurred before the split-off point and are irrelevant to further processing decisions.

Split-off Point

分離点

個別製品として識別可能になる時点

At the split-off point, joint products become separately identifiable.

Net Realizable Value (NRV)

正味実現可能価額

最終売価 - 追加加工費。配賦基準に使用

NRV is used to allocate joint costs when split-off sales values are not available.

By-Product

副産物

売上価値が相対的に低い付随的産出物

By-product NRV is typically deducted from joint costs before allocating to main products.

Sales Value at Split-off

分離点売価法

分離点での売上価値で結合原価を配賦

Sales value at split-off is the simplest method for allocating joint costs.

Cost of Production Report

製造原価報告書

総合原価計算の核心帳票

The cost of production report summarizes units, costs, and equivalent units for each department.

Inspection Point

検知点

仕損品が発見される加工進捗度の地点

Only units that have passed the inspection point bear normal spoilage costs.

FOH Control

製造間接費統制勘定

実際発生のFOHを集計する勘定

FOH Control records actual overhead incurred, while FOH Applied records allocated amounts.

FOH Applied

製造間接費配賦勘定

予定配賦率で配賦した金額を記録する勘定

The difference between FOH Control and FOH Applied equals the over- or under-applied overhead.

Transferred-In Costs

前工程振替原価

前工程から後工程に繰り越された原価

Transferred-in costs are treated as a separate cost element in the receiving department.

Reworked Units

手直品

追加加工で修正可能な不良品

Reworked units require additional processing costs to bring them up to quality standards.

Variable Cost

変動費

操業度に比例して総額が変動。単位あたりは一定

Direct materials cost increases proportionally with production volume.

Fixed Cost

固定費

操業度に関係なく総額が一定。単位あたりは変動

Factory rent remains the same regardless of how many units are produced.

Mixed Cost (Semi-variable)

準変動費

固定部分 + 変動部分の混合

Utility costs often have a fixed base charge plus a variable usage component.

Contribution Margin (CM)

貢献利益

Sales - Variable Costs。固定費回収への貢献度

A product with a CM of $20 per unit contributes $20 toward covering fixed costs and profit.

Break-even Point (BEP)

損益分岐点

FC / CM per unit。利益ゼロの販売量

With fixed costs of $100,000 and CM of $20/unit, BEP is 5,000 units.

Margin of Safety

安全余裕率

実際売上 - BEP売上。赤字までの余裕

A margin of safety of 25% means sales can drop 25% before reaching break-even.

Operating Leverage

営業レバレッジ

CM / Operating Income。固定費比率の影響度

A DOL of 4 means a 10% increase in sales leads to a 40% increase in operating income.

Absorption Costing

全部原価計算

全FOH（変動+固定）をProduct Costに含む。GAAP準拠

GAAP requires absorption costing for external financial reporting.

Variable Costing

直接原価計算

変動FOHのみをProduct Costに含む。内部意思決定用

Under variable costing, fixed FOH is treated as a period cost.

Relevant Cost

関連原価

代替案間で異なる将来のコスト

Only costs that differ between alternatives are relevant to the decision.

Sunk Cost

沈没原価

既に発生し回収不能。常に意思決定に無関連

The original purchase price of equipment is a sunk cost irrelevant to the keep-or-replace decision.

Opportunity Cost

機会費用

代替案を選んだことで失われる次善の利益

If a company uses its factory to produce Product A, the lost profit from Product B is the opportunity cost.

Special Order

特殊注文

余剰キャパシティでの追加注文の受注判断

A special order should be accepted if the price exceeds incremental costs and spare capacity exists.

High-Low Method

高低点法

最高点と最低点で変動費率を推定。最も簡便

The high-low method uses only two data points and is the least accurate cost estimation technique.

Least-Squares Regression

最小二乗法

全データ使用。統計的に最も精度が高い

Least-squares regression uses all data points to find the best-fit line for cost estimation.

CM Ratio

貢献利益率

CM / Sales。追加売上$1あたりの貢献利益

With a CM ratio of 40%, each additional dollar of sales generates $0.40 in contribution margin.

Avoidable Fixed Cost

回避可能固定費

部門廃止等で消滅する固定費。関連原価

A department supervisor's salary that would be eliminated if the department closes is an avoidable fixed cost.

Relevant Range

関連範囲

CVP分析の前提が成立する操業度の範囲

Within the relevant range, fixed costs remain constant and variable costs per unit stay the same.

Master Budget

総合予算

業務予算＋財務予算の統合。出発点はSales Budget

The master budget starts with the sales budget and includes both operating and financial budgets.

Flexible Budget

変動予算

実際の活動水準に調整した予算。効率差異を分離

A flexible budget adjusts budgeted costs to the actual level of activity achieved.

Static Budget

固定予算

予算時の単一水準で作成。活動量変動を分離できない

A static budget is prepared for one level of activity and does not change with actual volume.

Standard Cost

標準原価

製品1単位あたりの予定原価

Standard cost is the predetermined cost per unit used as a benchmark for performance evaluation.

Price Variance (DM)

価格差異（直接材料費）

(AP - SP) x AQ。購買部門の責任

A favorable DM price variance means the actual price paid was less than the standard price.

Quantity Variance (DM)

数量差異（直接材料費）

(AQ - SQ) x SP。製造部門の責任

An unfavorable DM quantity variance indicates more materials were used than the standard allows.

Rate Variance (DL)

賃率差異（直接労務費）

(AR - SR) x AH。人事/製造部門の責任

A DL rate variance arises when the actual hourly wage differs from the standard rate.

Efficiency Variance (DL)

能率差異（直接労務費）

(AH - SH) x SR。製造部門の責任

An unfavorable DL efficiency variance means workers took more hours than standard.

FOH Spending Variance

製造間接費支出差異

Actual FOH - Budget at Actual Hours

The spending variance measures the difference between actual FOH and what should have been spent.

FOH Efficiency Variance

製造間接費能率差異

(AH - SH) x Variable FOH Rate

FOH efficiency variance arises when actual hours differ from standard hours allowed.

FOH Volume Variance

製造間接費操業度差異

固定FOHのみから生じる。予算操業度との差

An unfavorable volume variance indicates the factory operated below its expected capacity.

Favorable Variance (F)

有利差異

実際 < 標準。標準より少なく済んだ

A favorable variance means actual costs were less than standard costs.

Unfavorable Variance (U)

不利差異

実際 > 標準。標準より多くかかった

An unfavorable variance means actual costs exceeded standard costs.

Currently Attainable Standard

現実的標準

通常の非効率を考慮した標準。最も一般的

Currently attainable standards allow for normal waste and are the most commonly used.

Budget Slack

予算のゆるみ

ボトムアップ予算で生じやすい。達成容易な目標設定

Budget slack occurs when managers intentionally underestimate revenues or overestimate costs.

Zero-Based Budgeting (ZBB)

ゼロベース予算

前年度を基準にせず、ゼロから全活動を正当化

Zero-based budgeting requires every expense to be justified from scratch each period.

Production Budget

生産予算

販売数量 + 目標期末FG - 期首FG

The production budget determines how many units must be manufactured to meet sales and inventory targets.

Sales Budget

売上予算

Master Budgetの出発点

The sales budget is the starting point for the entire master budget process.

Return on Investment (ROI)

投下資本利益率

Operating Income / Investment Base。効率の指標

ROI measures how efficiently a division uses its invested capital to generate profit.

Residual Income (RI)

残余利益

OI - (Required Rate x Investment)。金額の指標

A positive RI means the division earned more than its required rate of return.

Economic Value Added (EVA)

経済的付加価値

NOPAT - (WACC x Total Capital)。RIの発展形

EVA measures the true economic profit after deducting the cost of all capital.

Balanced Scorecard (BSC)

バランスドスコアカード

Financial / Customer / Internal / Learning の4視点

BSC evaluates performance using both financial and non-financial measures across four perspectives.

DuPont Analysis

デュポン分析

ROI = Profit Margin x Asset Turnover

DuPont analysis breaks ROI into margin and turnover to identify improvement opportunities.

Suboptimization

部分最適化

部門のROI維持のため全社的に有益な投資を拒否

Suboptimization occurs when a division manager rejects a project that would lower division ROI but benefit the company.

Transfer Price

移転価格

同一企業内の部門間取引で使用される価格

The minimum transfer price equals variable cost plus any opportunity cost from lost external sales.

Investment Center

投資センター

収益・コスト・投資全てに責任。ROI/RI/EVAで評価

An investment center manager is responsible for revenues, costs, and the capital invested.

Profit Center

利益センター

収益とコストに責任。投資額は管轄外

A profit center manager controls both revenues and costs but not the level of investment.

Cost Center

原価センター

コストの管理のみに責任

A manufacturing department evaluated only on cost control is a cost center.

Prevention Costs

予防コスト

品質問題を未然に防ぐコスト

Employee training and design reviews are examples of prevention costs.

Appraisal Costs

評価コスト

品質水準を評価・検査するコスト

Inspection and testing activities are classified as appraisal costs.

Internal Failure Costs

内部失敗コスト

出荷前に発見された不良のコスト

Rework and scrap costs are internal failure costs discovered before shipment.

External Failure Costs

外部失敗コスト

出荷後の不良。最も高コスト

Warranty repairs and product recalls are costly external failure costs.

Just-in-Time (JIT)

ジャスト・イン・タイム

必要な時に必要な量だけ生産。在庫最小化

JIT manufacturing aims to minimize inventory by producing only what is needed, when it is needed.

Theory of Constraints (TOC)

制約条件の理論

ボトルネックに焦点を当てた改善手法

TOC focuses on identifying and managing the bottleneck to maximize throughput.

Throughput Contribution

スループット貢献利益

Sales - DM。TOCでの業績指標

Throughput contribution equals revenue minus direct materials, which is the only truly variable cost under TOC.

Key Performance Indicator (KPI)

重要業績評価指標

目標達成度を測定する定量的指標

Customer satisfaction rate and on-time delivery rate are common KPIs.

Shareholder Value Maximization

株主価値の最大化

財務管理者の最終目標。利益最大化ではない

The goal of financial management is to maximize shareholder value, not short-term accounting profit.

Time Value of Money (TVM)

貨幣の時間価値

今日の$1は将来の$1より価値が高い

TVM is the foundation of all present value and future value calculations in finance.

Fair Value

公正価値

秩序ある取引で受け取る/支払う価格

Fair value is the price that would be received to sell an asset in an orderly transaction.

Fair Value Hierarchy

公正価値のヒエラルキー

Level 1（最高）→ Level 2 → Level 3（最低）

Level 1 inputs are quoted prices in active markets; Level 3 uses unobservable inputs.

Income Approach (DCF)

インカムアプローチ

将来CFの現在価値で評価。ファイナンスの中核

The income approach values an asset by discounting its expected future cash flows.

Market Approach

市場アプローチ

類似資産の市場価格を参照して評価

The market approach uses comparable company multiples to estimate fair value.

Cost Approach

コストアプローチ

再調達原価で評価。特殊な資産向け

The cost approach estimates fair value based on the cost to replace the asset.

Financing Decision

資金調達の意思決定

B/Sの右側（負債+資本）の構成を決める

Financing decisions determine the mix of debt and equity used to fund the company.

Investment Decision

投資の意思決定

B/Sの左側（資産）の構成を決める

Investment decisions determine which long-term projects and assets to acquire.

Working Capital Management

運転資本管理

日々のお金の流れの短期的な管理

Working capital management involves managing current assets and liabilities for liquidity.

Present Value (PV)

現在価値

将来のCFを割引率で現在の価値に換算した額

The present value of $110 received one year from now at 10% is $100.

Risk Premium

リスクプレミアム

リスクに対する追加リターン

Investors demand a risk premium above the risk-free rate for taking on additional risk.

Working Capital

運転資本

流動資産 - 流動負債。短期的な支払い能力

Working capital equals current assets minus current liabilities.

Cash Conversion Cycle (CCC)

キャッシュ・コンバージョン・サイクル

DIO + DSO - DPO。現金回収までの日数

A shorter CCC means the company converts inventory to cash more quickly.

Days Inventory Outstanding (DIO)

棚卸資産回転日数

365 / Inventory Turnover。在庫保有日数

DIO measures the average number of days inventory is held before being sold.

Days Sales Outstanding (DSO)

売掛金回転日数

365 / AR Turnover。売掛金回収日数

DSO indicates how many days on average it takes to collect accounts receivable.

Days Payable Outstanding (DPO)

買掛金回転日数

365 / AP Turnover。支払いまでの日数

A longer DPO means the company takes longer to pay its suppliers.

Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)

経済的発注量

√(2DS/H)。在庫発注コストと保管コストの最適化

EOQ minimizes total inventory costs by balancing ordering costs and holding costs.

Current Ratio

流動比率

流動資産 / 流動負債。短期支払い能力の指標

A current ratio of 2.0 means the company has $2 in current assets for every $1 in current liabilities.

Quick Ratio

当座比率

(現金 + 短期投資 + AR) / 流動負債

The quick ratio excludes inventory because it is less liquid than cash and receivables.

Trade Credit

仕入先信用（買掛金取引）

2/10, net 30のような取引条件

Terms of 2/10, net 30 offer a 2% discount if paid within 10 days.

Line of Credit

信用枠

銀行が設定する借入可能枠

A revolving line of credit allows a company to borrow up to a predetermined limit.

Compensating Balance

拘束預金

借入の条件として維持する最低預金残高

A compensating balance requirement increases the effective borrowing rate.

Float

フロート

小切手の振出から口座引落しまでの時間差

Collection float is the delay between when a customer pays and when funds are available.

Factoring

ファクタリング

売掛金を割引価格で売却して即時現金化

Factoring converts receivables into immediate cash at a discount.

Safety Stock

安全在庫

需要変動やリードタイムの不確実性に対する予備在庫

Safety stock is held to prevent stockouts during unexpected demand increases.

Reorder Point

再発注点

リードタイム中の需要 + 安全在庫

The reorder point triggers a new purchase order when inventory falls to that level.

Net Present Value (NPV)

正味現在価値

将来CFのPV合計 - 初期投資。理論的に最優秀

If NPV is positive, the project creates shareholder value and should be accepted.

Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

内部収益率

NPV = 0となる割引率。IRR > WACCなら採用

If the IRR exceeds the company's WACC, the project should be accepted.

Payback Period

回収期間

初期投資回収までの期間。TVMを無視する欠点

The payback method ignores the time value of money and cash flows after the payback period.

Profitability Index (PI)

収益性指標

PV of future CF / Initial Investment。PI > 1なら採用

PI is useful for ranking projects when capital is limited.

Depreciation Tax Shield

減価償却の節税効果

減価償却費 x 税率。CFへの間接的影響

A depreciation tax shield of $500,000 reduces tax payments and increases after-tax cash flow.

Accounting Rate of Return (ARR)

会計利益率

平均会計利益 / 平均投資額。TVMを無視

ARR uses accounting income rather than cash flows and ignores the time value of money.

Mutually Exclusive Projects

相互排他的プロジェクト

一方を選ぶと他方を選べない。NPV法を優先

When NPV and IRR conflict for mutually exclusive projects, NPV should be preferred.

Salvage Value

残存価値

プロジェクト終了時の資産売却価値

Salvage value at the end of the project's life is a cash inflow in the final year.

Incremental Cash Flow

増分キャッシュフロー

プロジェクトの有無で変わるCFのみが関連

Only incremental cash flows that change as a result of accepting the project are relevant.

Capital Budgeting

資本予算

長期投資の意思決定プロセス全体

Capital budgeting involves evaluating and selecting long-term investment projects.

Discounted Cash Flow (DCF)

割引キャッシュフロー法

TVMを考慮した投資評価手法の総称

NPV and IRR are both discounted cash flow methods.

Discount Rate

割引率

将来CFを現在価値に変換するための率

The discount rate typically used in NPV calculations is the company's WACC.

Annuity

年金（均等CF）

毎期同額のCF。年金現価係数で計算簡略化

An annuity of $10,000 per year for 5 years can be valued using the present value annuity factor.

Terminal Value

最終価値

プロジェクト最終年度の残存価値＋運転資本回収

Terminal value includes salvage value and the recovery of working capital at the end of the project.

Sensitivity Analysis

感度分析

1変数を変化させてNPVへの影響を測定

Sensitivity analysis shows how much NPV changes when a single variable is altered.

CAPM (Capital Asset Pricing Model)

資本資産価格モデル

Ke = Rf + β(Rm - Rf)。体系的リスクのみ価格付け

CAPM calculates the expected return based on the risk-free rate, beta, and market risk premium.

WACC (Weighted Average Cost of Capital)

加重平均資本コスト

Wd x Kd(1-T) + We x Ke。NPVの割引率

WACC represents the blended cost of all sources of capital, weighted by their proportions.

Beta (β)

ベータ

個別銘柄の市場への感応度。体系的リスクの指標

A beta of 1.5 means the stock is 50% more volatile than the overall market.

Systematic Risk

体系的リスク（市場リスク）

分散投資で除去不可。金利変動、景気後退等

Systematic risk affects the entire market and cannot be eliminated through diversification.

Unsystematic Risk

非体系的リスク（個別リスク）

分散投資で除去可能。企業固有の事象

Unsystematic risk is firm-specific and can be diversified away by holding a portfolio.

Risk-Free Rate (Rf)

リスクフリーレート

国債利回り等。リスクゼロの投資のリターン

The yield on U.S. Treasury securities is commonly used as the risk-free rate.

Market Risk Premium

市場リスクプレミアム

Rm - Rf。市場全体の追加リターン

The market risk premium is the excess return investors expect for bearing market risk.

Cost of Equity (Ke)

株主資本コスト

株主が要求するリターン。CAPMまたはDDMで推定

The cost of equity can be estimated using CAPM or the dividend discount model.

Cost of Debt (Kd)

負債コスト

税引後: Kd x (1-T)。利息の税控除効果あり

The after-tax cost of debt is lower than the stated rate due to the tax deductibility of interest.

Dividend Discount Model (DDM)

配当割引モデル

Ke = D1/P0 + g。配当成長率モデル

DDM estimates cost of equity as dividend yield plus the expected growth rate of dividends.

Standard Deviation

標準偏差

リターンのばらつき。個別投資のリスク測定

A higher standard deviation indicates greater variability in returns and higher risk.

Coefficient of Variation (CV)

変動係数

σ / 期待リターン。異なるリターン水準での比較

CV measures risk per unit of return, useful for comparing investments with different return levels.

Yield Curve

イールドカーブ

満期と利回りの関係。逆イールドは景気後退シグナル

An inverted yield curve, where short-term rates exceed long-term rates, often signals a recession.

Effective Annual Rate (EAR)

実効年利

(1 + r/n)^n - 1。複利回数を考慮した実質年利

A nominal rate of 12% compounded monthly yields an EAR of approximately 12.68%.

Diversification

分散投資

非体系的リスクを除去する手法。体系的リスクは残る

Diversification reduces unsystematic risk but cannot eliminate systematic risk.

Debt-to-Equity Ratio (D/E)

負債資本比率

総負債 / 株主資本。レバレッジの程度

A D/E ratio of 2.0 means the company has $2 of debt for every $1 of equity.

Financial Leverage

財務レバレッジ

負債利用でEPSを増幅。両刃の剣

Financial leverage amplifies both gains and losses in EPS.

Earnings Per Share (EPS)

1株当たり利益

(NI - Preferred Div) / 発行済普通株式数

EPS measures the portion of a company's profit attributable to each share of common stock.

Interest Coverage Ratio

インタレスト・カバレッジ・レシオ

EBIT / 支払利息。利息支払い能力

A higher interest coverage ratio indicates greater ability to meet interest obligations.

Interest Tax Shield

利息の税効果

利息 x 税率。負債の税引後コストを下げる効果

Interest tax shield reduces the effective cost of debt because interest expense is tax-deductible.

Preferred Stock

優先株式

配当優先権あり、議決権なし。ハイブリッド証券

Preferred stock pays a fixed dividend and has priority over common stock in liquidation.

Common Stock

普通株式

議決権あり、配当は任意。清算時は最後

Common stockholders have voting rights but are last in line during liquidation.

IPO (Initial Public Offering)

新規株式公開

初めて株式を公開市場に発行

An IPO is the first sale of a company's stock to the public.

Financial Distress Cost

財務困難コスト

過度な負債で生じる倒産リスクのコスト

As debt increases, financial distress costs eventually outweigh the tax benefits of debt.

Optimal Capital Structure

最適資本構成

WACCが最小化される負債と資本の比率

The optimal capital structure minimizes WACC and maximizes firm value.

P/E Ratio

株価収益率

株価 / EPS。株価の割高度を示す

A high P/E ratio may indicate the market expects strong future earnings growth.

Convertible Bond

転換社債

株式への転換権付きの社債

A convertible bond can be converted into a predetermined number of common shares.

Enterprise Risk Management (ERM)

全社的リスク管理

COSOが提唱。内部統制を包含・拡張した枠組み

ERM provides a comprehensive framework for identifying and managing risks across the organization.

Risk Appetite

リスク選好

組織が受け入れる意思のあるリスクの量と種類

Risk appetite defines the level and type of risk an organization is willing to accept.

Risk Tolerance

リスク許容度

目標からの乖離の許容範囲

Risk tolerance is the acceptable level of variation around a specific objective.

Risk Response: Accept

リスク対応: 受容

リスクをそのまま受け入れる。コスト対効果で判断

An organization may accept a low-impact risk when the cost of mitigation exceeds the expected loss.

Risk Response: Avoid

リスク対応: 回避

リスクの原因となる活動を中止する

A company avoids risk by discontinuing a product line that poses significant liability.

Risk Response: Reduce

リスク対応: 低減

リスクの発生確率または影響を軽減する

Installing firewalls and antivirus software reduces the risk of cyber attacks.

Risk Response: Share

リスク対応: 移転（共有）

保険加入やアウトソーシングでリスクを第三者と共有

Purchasing insurance transfers the financial impact of a risk to the insurance company.

Inherent Risk (ERM)

固有リスク（ERM）

統制が存在しない場合のリスク水準

Inherent risk is the level of risk before any controls or mitigating actions are applied.

Residual Risk (ERM)

残余リスク（ERM）

統制を適用した後に残るリスク水準

Residual risk is the risk that remains after management has implemented risk responses.

Strategic Risk

戦略リスク

事業戦略に関連するリスク。競争環境の変化等

A new competitor entering the market is an example of strategic risk.

Operational Risk

業務リスク

日常業務に関連するリスク。プロセスの不備等

Equipment failure or employee error are examples of operational risk.

Compliance Risk

コンプライアンスリスク

法規制の違反に関するリスク

Failure to comply with environmental regulations exposes a company to compliance risk.

Price Elasticity of Demand

需要の価格弾力性

需要量の変化率 / 価格の変化率

A price elasticity of -2 means a 1% price increase leads to a 2% decrease in demand.

Supply and Demand

需要と供給

市場価格は需要曲線と供給曲線の交点で決定

The equilibrium price is determined at the intersection of the supply and demand curves.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

国内総生産

国内で一定期間に生産された財・サービスの総額

GDP is the most commonly used measure of a country's economic output.

Inflation

インフレーション

物価水準の持続的上昇

Inflation erodes the purchasing power of money over time.

Leading Indicators

先行指標

景気変動に先行して変化。株価、新規受注等

Stock prices and new orders for durable goods are examples of leading economic indicators.

Lagging Indicators

遅行指標

景気変動に遅れて変化。失業率、CPI等

The unemployment rate is a lagging indicator that changes after the economy has shifted.

Coincident Indicators

一致指標

景気と同時に変化。個人所得、鉱工業生産指数

Industrial production is a coincident indicator that moves simultaneously with the business cycle.

Monetary Policy

金融政策

中央銀行による通貨供給量・金利の調整

The Federal Reserve uses monetary policy tools like interest rates to control inflation.

Fiscal Policy

財政政策

政府の支出と税収による景気調整

Tax cuts and increased government spending are expansionary fiscal policy measures.

Business Cycle

景気循環

拡大→頂点→後退→底の4局面

The business cycle consists of expansion, peak, contraction, and trough phases.

Market Equilibrium

市場均衡

需要量 = 供給量の状態

At market equilibrium, the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied at the prevailing price.

Demand Shifters

需要シフト要因

所得変化、嗜好変化、代替財価格等

An increase in consumer income shifts the demand curve for normal goods to the right.

Goodwill

のれん

企業結合でのみ発生。償却不要、年次減損テスト必須

Goodwill is not amortized but must be tested for impairment at least annually.

Indefinite-Lived Intangible Asset

耐用年数無期限の無形資産

償却不要。年次減損テスト必須

Trademarks with indefinite lives are not amortized but tested for impairment annually.

Impairment Test (Goodwill)

減損テスト（のれん）

FV of reporting unit < Carrying amount → 減損認識

If a reporting unit's fair value falls below its carrying amount, goodwill impairment is recognized.

Reporting Unit

報告単位

のれん減損テストが実施される組織単位

Goodwill is assigned to reporting units and tested for impairment at that level.

Internal-Use Software

内部利用ソフトウェア

Application Development段階から資産計上

Costs incurred during the application development stage of internal-use software are capitalized.

Software for Sale (External-Use)

販売用ソフトウェア

Technological Feasibility確立後から資産計上

Costs of software to be sold are capitalized after technological feasibility is established.

Research and Development (R&D)

研究開発費

原則として発生時に費用処理

R&D costs are generally expensed as incurred under U.S. GAAP.

Technological Feasibility

技術的実現可能性

販売用ソフトウェアの資産計上開始の判定基準

Technological feasibility is established upon completion of a detailed program design or working model.

Finite-Lived Intangible Asset

耐用年数有限の無形資産

耐用年数にわたって償却。減損は引き金ベース

Patents are amortized over their useful life and tested for impairment when indicators exist.

Qualitative Assessment (Step 0)

定性評価（ステップ0）

減損テスト前の簡便法。50%超の確率で判定

The qualitative assessment allows entities to skip the quantitative test if impairment is not likely.

In-Process R&D (IPR&D)

仕掛研究開発

企業結合で取得。完了まで償却しない

Acquired in-process R&D is capitalized as an indefinite-lived asset until the project is completed.

Amortization

償却

無形資産の取得原価を耐用年数にわたり費用配分

A patent with a 10-year useful life is amortized at $10,000 per year on a straight-line basis.

Stock Option

ストック・オプション

付与日FVで測定、勤務期間にわたり費用配分

Stock options are measured at grant-date fair value and expensed over the vesting period.

Restricted Stock Unit (RSU)

制限付き株式ユニット

付与日FVで測定。権利確定条件あり

RSUs vest over time and the grant-date fair value is recognized as compensation expense.

Grant Date

付与日

報酬条件が合意された日。FV測定の基準日

The fair value of a stock option is measured on the grant date.

Vesting Period

権利確定期間

報酬権利が確定するまでの勤務期間

Compensation expense is recognized ratably over the vesting period.

Exercise Price (Strike Price)

行使価格

オプション保有者が株式を購入できる価格

If the stock price exceeds the exercise price, the option is in-the-money.

Fair Value Method

公正価値法

ASC 718で要求。Black-Scholesモデル等で算定

The fair value method uses option pricing models to determine compensation cost.

Forfeiture

失効

権利確定前に退職等で権利を喪失すること

When an employee leaves before vesting, previously recognized compensation expense is reversed.

Stock Appreciation Right (SAR)

株式増価受益権

株価上昇分を現金or株式で受け取る権利

A cash-settled SAR is remeasured at fair value each reporting period.

Performance Condition

業績条件

業績目標達成が権利確定の条件

If the performance condition is not probable, no compensation expense is recognized.

Modification of Award

報酬の条件変更

条件変更時、増分FVを追加で費用認識

A modification that increases the fair value of an award results in additional compensation expense.

Acquisition Method

取得法

企業結合の唯一認められる会計処理方法

Under the acquisition method, acquired assets and liabilities are measured at fair value.

Noncontrolling Interest (NCI)

非支配持分

子会社の少数株主持分。FVで測定

NCI represents the equity in a subsidiary not attributable to the parent company.

Consolidation

連結

親子会社の財務諸表を合算し内部取引を消去

Consolidation eliminates intercompany transactions and presents the group as a single entity.

Intercompany Elimination

内部取引消去

連結時にグループ内取引を相殺消去

Intercompany sales and receivables/payables must be eliminated in consolidation.

Bargain Purchase

バーゲン・パーチェス

取得対価 < 純資産FV。差額はGainとしてIS計上

A bargain purchase occurs when the acquisition price is less than the fair value of net assets.

Variable Interest Entity (VIE)

変動持分事業体

議決権ではなく変動持分で支配を判定

A VIE must be consolidated by its primary beneficiary regardless of voting interest.

Equity Method

持分法

20-50%出資。投資額にOIの持分を加減

Under the equity method, the investor recognizes its share of the investee's net income.

Acquisition Costs

取得関連費用

仲介手数料等は発生時に費用処理

Legal and advisory fees related to an acquisition are expensed as incurred.

Measurement Period

測定期間

取得日から最長1年間。暫定額の調整期間

The measurement period allows up to one year to finalize fair value estimates.

Fair Value of Consideration

移転された対価のFV

のれん計算の出発点

Goodwill equals the consideration transferred plus NCI less the fair value of net identifiable assets.

Contingent Consideration

条件付対価

将来の事象に応じて追加支払い。取得日FVで計上

Contingent consideration is recognized at fair value on the acquisition date.

Upstream / Downstream Sale

アップストリーム/ダウンストリーム取引

子→親 / 親→子の内部取引。未実現利益を消去

Unrealized profit from intercompany sales must be eliminated in consolidation.

SADIQ Mnemonic

SADIQ消去仕訳

S=Stock, A=APIC, D=Dividend, I=Investment, Q=NCI

SADIQ is a mnemonic for the basic consolidation elimination entry.

Primary Beneficiary

主たる受益者

VIEを連結する義務を負うエンティティ

The primary beneficiary of a VIE has both power and the obligation to absorb losses or receive benefits.

Push-down Accounting

プッシュダウン会計

取得日のFV調整を子会社個別FSに反映

Push-down accounting restates the subsidiary's individual financial statements to fair value.

Functional Currency

機能通貨

主要な営業活動が行われる環境の通貨

The functional currency is the currency of the primary economic environment in which the entity operates.

Current Rate Method

決算日レート法

機能通貨=現地通貨の場合。CTA→OCI

Under the current rate method, all assets and liabilities are translated at the current exchange rate.

Temporal Method

テンポラル法

機能通貨=USD。Remeasurement G/L→P/L

The temporal method remeasures monetary items at current rates and nonmonetary items at historical rates.

Cumulative Translation Adjustment (CTA)

累積換算調整額

決算日レート法の差額。OCIに計上

CTA is the translation difference reported in other comprehensive income under the current rate method.

Remeasurement Gain/Loss

再測定損益

テンポラル法の差額。P/Lに計上

Remeasurement gains and losses under the temporal method are reported in the income statement.

Foreign Currency Transaction Gain/Loss

外貨建取引損益

取引日と決済日の為替差額。P/Lに計上

A transaction gain arises when a foreign currency strengthens between the transaction and settlement dates.

Spot Rate

スポットレート

現時点での為替レート

The spot rate is used to translate foreign currency transactions on the date they occur.

Historical Rate

ヒストリカルレート

取引発生日時点のレート

Common stock and fixed assets are translated at historical rates under the temporal method.

Average Rate

平均レート

期中の平均為替レート。IS項目に使用

Income statement items are typically translated at the weighted-average exchange rate for the period.

Highly Inflationary Economy

超インフレ経済

3年間で累積インフレ100%超。テンポラル法を適用

In a highly inflationary economy, the temporal method is used regardless of the functional currency.

Forward Contract

先渡契約

将来の特定日に通貨を売買する契約

A forward contract can hedge the risk of exchange rate fluctuations on foreign currency transactions.

Monetary Item

貨幣性項目

現金、売掛金、買掛金等。決算日レートで換算

Monetary items such as cash and receivables are translated at the current rate under both methods.

Derivative

デリバティブ（金融派生商品）

原資産の価値変動から価値が派生する金融商品

Derivatives are measured at fair value on the balance sheet.

Fair Value Hedge

公正価値ヘッジ

既存資産/負債のFV変動リスクをヘッジ。G/L→P/L

A fair value hedge offsets changes in the fair value of a recognized asset or liability.

Cash Flow Hedge

キャッシュフローヘッジ

将来CFの変動リスクをヘッジ。有効部分→OCI

The effective portion of a cash flow hedge is reported in OCI until the hedged transaction occurs.

Net Investment Hedge

在外事業体純投資ヘッジ

在外子会社への純投資の為替変動をヘッジ→OCI

A net investment hedge protects against foreign currency exposure of a foreign subsidiary.

Hedge Effectiveness

ヘッジの有効性

ヘッジ手段がリスクを相殺する程度

Hedge effectiveness must be assessed to qualify for hedge accounting treatment.

Option

オプション

将来の売買の権利（義務ではない）

A call option gives the holder the right to buy an asset at a specified price.

Swap

スワップ

異なる条件のCFを交換する契約

An interest rate swap exchanges fixed-rate payments for floating-rate payments.

Futures Contract

先物契約

取引所で標準化された先渡契約

Futures contracts are standardized and traded on organized exchanges.

Notional Amount

想定元本

デリバティブの計算基礎となる名目金額

The notional amount determines the cash flows exchanged in a swap but is not itself exchanged.

Intrinsic Value

本源的価値

オプションの原資産価格と行使価格の差

An in-the-money option has positive intrinsic value.

Time Value

時間的価値

オプションFV - 本源的価値。満期までの期待価値

Time value decreases as the option approaches expiration.

Hedge Documentation

ヘッジ文書化

ヘッジ会計適用に必要な正式な文書化

Formal documentation of the hedging relationship is required at inception for hedge accounting.

Sales-Type Lease (Lessor)

販売型リース（貸手）

5基準のいずれかを満たし売却損益が発生

In a sales-type lease, the lessor recognizes a selling profit or loss at commencement.

Direct Financing Lease (Lessor)

直接金融型リース（貸手）

5基準を満たすが売却損益なし

A direct financing lease defers any selling profit in the net investment in the lease.

Operating Lease (Lessor)

オペレーティングリース（貸手）

5基準のいずれも満たさない

Under an operating lease, the lessor continues to depreciate the underlying asset.

Net Investment in the Lease

リース投資純額

リース料債権のPV + 残存価値のPV

The net investment in a lease equals the present value of lease payments plus the residual value.

Sale-Leaseback

セール・リースバック

資産売却後にリースで使い続ける取引

A sale-leaseback is treated as a sale only if it qualifies as a sale under ASC 606.

Unearned Revenue (Lessor)

未稼得収益（貸手）

利息法で収益認識される利息部分

The lessor recognizes interest income from the net investment using the effective interest method.

Guaranteed Residual Value

保証残存価値

借手がリース満了時に保証する資産の最低価値

A guaranteed residual value is included in lease payment calculations for both lessee and lessor.

Unguaranteed Residual Value

無保証残存価値

リース終了時に貸手が期待する保証なしの価値

Unguaranteed residual value is included in the lessor's but not the lessee's lease calculations.

Lease Classification Criteria (5 Tests)

リース分類基準（5つのテスト）

Transfer, Purchase option, 75% life, 90% FV, Specialized

If any one of the five criteria is met, the lease is classified as a finance or sales-type lease.

Collectibility Test (Lessor)

回収可能性テスト（貸手）

貸手がSales-typeかDirect Financingか判定する追加基準

The lessor must also assess collectibility to determine the appropriate lease classification.

Diluted EPS

希薄化後EPS

潜在株式の影響を考慮したEPS

Diluted EPS assumes all dilutive securities are converted to common stock.

Treasury Stock Method

自己株式方式

オプションのDiluted EPS計算法

The treasury stock method assumes option proceeds are used to repurchase shares at the average market price.

If-Converted Method

転換仮定法

転換社債のDiluted EPS計算法

The if-converted method adds back interest expense and adds converted shares for diluted EPS.

Segment Reporting

セグメント報告

10%テスト（収益・損益・資産）で報告セグメント判定

A segment must be reported separately if it meets any of the 10% quantitative thresholds.

SEC Filing (10-K / 10-Q)

SEC提出書類

10-K=年次、10-Q=四半期、8-K=臨時

The 10-K annual report must include audited financial statements filed with the SEC.

Sarbanes-Oxley Act Section 404

SOX法404条

ICFRの経営者評価と監査人報告を義務化

Section 404 requires management to assess and report on the effectiveness of internal controls.

Non-GAAP Measures

Non-GAAP指標

GAAP外の業績指標。Regulation G準拠が必要

Non-GAAP measures like adjusted EBITDA must be reconciled to the closest GAAP measure.

Large Accelerated Filer

大規模早期提出企業

Public float $700M以上。60日以内に10-K提出

A large accelerated filer must file its annual report within 60 days of fiscal year end.

Antidilutive Security

逆希薄化証券

EPSを増加させる証券。Diluted EPSから除外

Out-of-the-money options are antidilutive and excluded from diluted EPS calculations.

XBRL (eXtensible Business Reporting Language)

拡張ビジネス報告言語

SEC提出書類の電子タグ付け標準

XBRL tagging allows automated analysis and comparison of financial data.

Proxy Statement

委任状説明書

株主総会の議案と経営者報酬の開示書類

The proxy statement discloses executive compensation and matters to be voted on.

Regulation G

レギュレーションG

Non-GAAP指標の開示ルール。GAAP指標との調整表必須

Regulation G requires a reconciliation of non-GAAP measures to the most comparable GAAP measure.

Defined Benefit Plan (DBP)

確定給付型年金

給付額が事前に確定。企業がリスクを負担

Under a defined benefit plan, the employer bears the investment risk and guarantees a specified benefit.

Projected Benefit Obligation (PBO)

予測給付債務

将来の昇給を考慮した年金債務のPV

PBO is the present value of all benefits earned by employees considering future salary increases.

Plan Assets

年金資産

年金信託に拠出された資産のFV

Plan assets are measured at fair value and offset the PBO to determine funded status.

Funded Status

積立状況

Plan Assets - PBO。BS上の資産or負債

If plan assets exceed PBO, the plan is overfunded and reported as a net asset.

Net Periodic Pension Cost (NPPC)

期間純年金費用

Service Cost + Interest - Return + Amortization

NPPC consists of service cost, interest cost, expected return on plan assets, and amortization items.

Service Cost

勤務費用

当期の勤務で増加した年金債務。ISのOperating

Service cost is the only component of NPPC classified as an operating expense.

Interest Cost

利息費用

PBO期首残高 x 割引率

Interest cost reflects the increase in PBO due to the passage of time.

Corridor Approach (10% Rule)

コリドール・アプローチ（10%ルール）

累積未認識G/Lの10%超過分を償却

Under the corridor approach, actuarial gains and losses outside the 10% corridor are amortized.

Prior Service Cost (PSC)

過去勤務費用

制度改定による遡及的な年金債務の増減

Prior service cost from a plan amendment is recognized in OCI and amortized over remaining service years.

Defined Contribution Plan (DCP)

確定拠出型年金

拠出額が事前に確定。従業員がリスクを負担

A 401(k) plan is a common defined contribution plan where the employee bears the investment risk.

Accumulated Benefit Obligation (ABO)

累積給付債務

将来の昇給を考慮しない年金債務のPV

ABO differs from PBO in that it does not project future salary increases.

Expected Return on Plan Assets

期待運用収益

年金資産の長期期待運用利回り x PA期首残高

The expected return on plan assets reduces net periodic pension cost.

Revenue Recognition (5-Step Model)

収益認識（5ステップモデル）

ASC 606。契約識別→履行義務→価格→配分→認識

ASC 606 requires revenue recognition when performance obligations are satisfied.

Performance Obligation

履行義務

顧客に財・サービスを移転する約束

Each distinct performance obligation in a contract is accounted for separately.

Transaction Price

取引価格

企業が権利を有すると見込む対価の金額

The transaction price is allocated to performance obligations based on standalone selling prices.

Variable Consideration

変動対価

値引き、リベート等の不確実な対価

Variable consideration is estimated and included in the transaction price subject to the constraint.

Standalone Selling Price (SSP)

独立販売価格

財・サービスを個別に販売する場合の価格

Transaction price is allocated to each performance obligation based on relative standalone selling prices.

Contract Asset

契約資産

履行義務充足済みだが対価の権利が未確定

A contract asset exists when revenue is recognized before the right to payment becomes unconditional.

Contract Liability

契約負債

対価受領済みだが履行義務が未充足

A contract liability arises when payment is received before the performance obligation is satisfied.

Financial Statement Analysis

財務諸表分析

比率分析、トレンド分析、コモンサイズ分析

Financial statement analysis uses ratios and trends to evaluate a company's performance.

Data Analytics

データ分析

大量データから有用な情報を抽出する手法

Data analytics helps identify trends, anomalies, and patterns in financial data.

EBITDA

EBITDA

Earnings Before Interest, Tax, Depreciation, Amortization

EBITDA is a commonly used non-GAAP measure that approximates operating cash flow.

Governmental Fund

政府会計区分

修正発生主義。General, Special Revenue, Capital Projects, Debt Service, Permanent

Governmental funds use modified accrual accounting to measure current financial resources.

Proprietary Fund

企業会計区分

完全な発生主義。Enterprise Fund, Internal Service Fund

Proprietary funds use full accrual accounting similar to private-sector enterprises.

Fiduciary Fund

受託会計区分

他者のために保有する資源。GWに含まれない

Fiduciary funds account for resources held in trust and are excluded from government-wide statements.

Modified Accrual Basis

修正発生主義

収入: Measurable & Available。支出: 発生時

Under modified accrual, revenues are recognized when measurable and available.

Government-wide Financial Statements

政府全体財務諸表

完全な発生主義。Statement of Net Position & Activities

Government-wide statements present all governmental and business-type activities on a full accrual basis.

Fund Financial Statements

基金別財務諸表

各基金の個別財務諸表。修正or完全発生主義

Fund financial statements report on individual funds using their respective measurement focuses.

General Fund

一般基金

政府の主要な営業基金。最も重要

The general fund accounts for all financial resources not assigned to another fund.

GASB (Governmental Accounting Standards Board)

政府会計基準審議会

州・地方政府の会計基準を制定する機関

GASB sets accounting standards for state and local governments in the United States.

Net Position

純資産（政府会計）

GW/Proprietaryの正味資源。Fund Balanceとは別

Net position in government-wide statements consists of net investment in capital assets, restricted, and unrestricted.

Fund Balance

基金残高

政府会計区分の正味資源。5分類

Fund balance is classified as nonspendable, restricted, committed, assigned, or unassigned.

Special Revenue Fund

特別歳入基金

特定の目的に制限された歳入を管理

A special revenue fund tracks revenues legally restricted for a specific purpose.

Capital Projects Fund

資本プロジェクト基金

大規模建設事業の資金を管理

A capital projects fund accounts for financial resources used for construction of major capital facilities.

Debt Service Fund

元利償還基金

長期債務の元本・利息の支払いを管理

The debt service fund accounts for the accumulation of resources for payment of long-term debt.

Enterprise Fund

企業基金

利用者への料金で運営。水道局、空港等

An enterprise fund is used for activities financed by user charges, such as a water utility.

Internal Service Fund

内部サービス基金

政府内の他部門にサービスを提供

An internal service fund provides services to other departments within the same government.

Budgetary Accounting

予算会計

政府特有。予算をF/Sに記録する仕組み

Budgetary accounting records the legally adopted budget in the accounting system.

Estimated Revenues

見積歳入

予算記録仕訳の借方。予算上の収入見積

Estimated revenues are debited in the budgetary entry at the beginning of the fiscal year.

Appropriations

歳出予算

予算記録仕訳の貸方。支出の法的上限

Appropriations represent the legal authorization to spend up to a certain amount.

Encumbrance

債務負担（発注残高）

発注時に計上。予算の使用済み部分を留保

An encumbrance reserves a portion of the budget when a purchase order is issued.

Budgetary Fund Balance

予算上の基金残高

Estimated Revenues - Appropriations の差額

If estimated revenues exceed appropriations, the budgetary fund balance is credited.

Closing Entry (Budgetary)

閉鎖仕訳（予算勘定）

期末に予算勘定と実績勘定を閉鎖

Budgetary accounts are closed at year-end by reversing the opening budgetary entry.

Budgetary Comparison Schedule

予算実績比較表

予算と実績の比較。必須の補足情報（RSI）

The budgetary comparison schedule shows original budget, final budget, and actual amounts.

Lapsing Appropriation

失効歳出予算

年度末に未使用の予算が失効する

Lapsing appropriations expire at the end of the fiscal year and cannot be spent thereafter.

Reserve for Encumbrances

債務負担引当金

発注残に対応する基金残高の留保

Reserve for encumbrances restricts fund balance for outstanding purchase commitments.

Legally Adopted Budget

法的に承認された予算

議会が承認した予算。法的拘束力あり

The legally adopted budget establishes the spending authority for governmental funds.

Nonexchange Transaction

非交換取引

直接的な対価なしに資源を受領する取引

Taxes and grants are nonexchange transactions where the government receives value without direct exchange.

Measurable and Available

測定可能かつ利用可能

修正発生主義の収入認識2要件

Revenue is recognized under modified accrual when it is both measurable and available.

Property Tax Revenue

固定資産税収入

賦課年度に認識。Available = 60日以内に回収

Property taxes are recognized in the period for which they are levied if collected within 60 days.

Derived Tax Revenue

派生的非交換収入

所得税、消費税。課税対象取引の発生時に認識

Sales taxes are derived from underlying exchange transactions and recognized when the sale occurs.

Imposed Nonexchange Revenue

賦課的非交換収入

固定資産税、罰金。賦課年度に認識

Property taxes and fines are imposed nonexchange revenues recognized in the period levied.

Government-Mandated Nonexchange

政府命令型非交換取引

上位政府からの交付金。条件充足時に認識

Federal grants that mandate specific activities are recognized when eligibility requirements are met.

Voluntary Nonexchange

自発的非交換取引

寄付、任意の交付金。条件充足時に認識

Voluntary grants and donations are recognized when all eligibility requirements are met.

Deferred Inflows of Resources

繰延資源流入

収入の認識要件を満たしていない受領済み資源

Property taxes received but not yet available are reported as deferred inflows of resources.

Exchange Transaction (Govt)

交換取引（政府会計）

対価と引き換えにサービスを提供。通常の収益認識

User fees for government services are exchange transactions recognized when earned.

Eligibility Requirements

適格要件

交付金の認識に必要な条件

Grant revenue is recognized only when all eligibility requirements, including time and purpose, are met.

Expenditure

支出（政府会計）

修正発生主義での資源流出。Expenseとは異なる概念

In governmental funds, capital asset purchases are recorded as expenditures, not capitalized.

Capital Asset (Governmental)

資本資産（政府会計）

Fund FSではExpenditureだがGW FSでは資産計上

Capital assets are expensed in fund statements but capitalized in government-wide statements.

Debt Principal Payment

元本支払い（政府会計）

修正発生主義ではWhen Due（支払期日）に認識

Long-term debt principal is recognized as an expenditure when it becomes due and payable.

Claims and Judgments

訴訟損失

Due and payableになった分のみExpenditureに認識

Claims payable from current financial resources are recognized as expenditures when due.

Compensated Absences

有給休暇債務

退職等で支払いが必要な分のみExpenditure

Compensated absences are recognized as expenditures only for amounts due and payable.

Interfund Transfer

基金間振替

基金間の資源移動。Other Financing Sources/Uses

Interfund transfers are reported as other financing sources and uses in governmental funds.

Other Financing Sources

その他の財源

債券発行収入、基金間振替収入等

Bond proceeds are classified as other financing sources, not revenues, in governmental funds.

Current Financial Resources

流動的財務資源

修正発生主義の測定焦点

The measurement focus of governmental funds is on current financial resources.

Expenditure Classification

支出の分類

Function（機能別）、Character（性格別）、Object（対象別）

Expenditures are classified by function (public safety), character (current), and object (salaries).

Due to/from Other Funds

基金間債権債務

基金間の未決済残高

Due to/from other funds represents short-term interfund receivables and payables.

Bond Proceeds (Governmental)

債券発行収入（政府会計）

Other Financing Sourcesとして計上。Revenueではない

Bond proceeds are reported as other financing sources in the capital projects fund.

Bond Premium (Governmental)

債券プレミアム（政府会計）

Debt Service Fundに移転するのが一般的

Bond premium is typically transferred to the debt service fund for future interest payments.

General Obligation Bond

一般債務債券

政府の課税権を担保にした債券

General obligation bonds are backed by the full faith and credit of the issuing government.

Revenue Bond

歳入債券

特定事業の収入を担保にした債券

Revenue bonds are repaid from the revenues generated by the specific project they finance.

Arbitrage

裁定取引（アービトラージ）

非課税債券の収入を高利回りで運用。規制あり

Arbitrage restrictions prevent governments from earning excess investment income on tax-exempt bonds.

Advance Refunding

前倒し借換え

既存債券を新規発行で借り換え

In an advance refunding, new bonds are issued to retire outstanding bonds before their maturity.

Construction Expenditure

建設支出

Capital Projects FundでExpenditureとして計上

Construction costs are recorded as expenditures in the capital projects fund.

Debt Service Expenditure

元利償還支出

元本と利息の支払い。When Dueで認識

Debt service expenditures for principal and interest are recognized when due.

Special Assessment

特別課税

特定地域の受益者に課す特別な税

Special assessments are levied on property owners who directly benefit from a capital improvement.

Retainage Payable

留保金

建設契約で工事完了まで支払いを留保する金額

Retainage payable represents amounts withheld from contractors until project completion.

General Capital Assets

一般資本資産

政府活動で使用。GW FSでのみ資産計上

General capital assets are reported only in the government-wide financial statements.

Infrastructure Assets

社会資本

道路、橋梁等。Modified Approachの選択肢あり

Infrastructure assets like roads and bridges may use the modified approach instead of depreciation.

Modified Approach (Infrastructure)

修正アプローチ（社会資本）

減価償却せず維持管理費を費用処理

Under the modified approach, infrastructure is not depreciated if maintained at a specified condition level.

Reconciliation (Fund to GW)

調整（基金→政府全体）

Fund FSからGW FSへの調整項目

Capital assets and long-term debt are added/removed in the reconciliation from fund to government-wide.

Interfund Activity

基金間取引

Reciprocal（相互的）とNonreciprocal（非相互的）

Interfund services and transfers are the two main types of interfund activity.

Deferred Outflows of Resources

繰延資源流出

将来の期間に費用化される資源の消費

Pension-related amounts are common deferred outflows in government-wide statements.

Statement of Net Position

純資産変動計算書

GW FSのB/S相当。資産+繰延流出-負債-繰延流入

The statement of net position presents assets and deferred outflows less liabilities and deferred inflows.

Statement of Activities

活動計算書

GW FSのP/L相当。Net (Expense) Revenue形式

The statement of activities presents each function's expenses net of program revenues.

Program Revenue

プログラム収入

特定の機能に直接関連する収入

Charges for services and operating grants are classified as program revenues.

General Revenue

一般収入

特定の機能に紐づかない収入。税収等

Property taxes and unrestricted grants are reported as general revenues.

Enterprise Fund Criteria

企業基金の使用条件

外部利用者への料金徴収。水道、空港等

Enterprise funds must be used when fees are charged to external users for goods or services.

Proprietary Fund CF Statement

企業会計区分CF計算書

4区分: Operating, Noncapital, Capital, Investing。直接法

Proprietary fund cash flow statements use the direct method and have four categories.

Noncapital Financing Activities

非資本的財務活動

運営補助金、基金間借入等。企業会計独自の区分

Operating grants and interfund borrowings are classified as noncapital financing activities.

Capital and Related Financing

資本的財務活動

資本資産の取得・処分に関連する財務活動

Bond proceeds used to acquire capital assets are capital and related financing activities.

Landfill Closure Costs

埋立処分場閉鎖費用

使用割合に応じて負債を計上。Enterprise Fund特有

Landfill closure costs are recognized proportionally as the landfill capacity is used.

Internal Service Fund

内部サービス基金

政府内の他部門にサービス提供。原価回収ベース

Internal service funds provide services to other governmental departments on a cost-reimbursement basis.

Full Accrual Basis (Proprietary)

完全な発生主義（企業会計区分）

民間企業と同様の会計基準を適用

Proprietary funds use full accrual accounting, recognizing revenues when earned and expenses when incurred.

Restricted Net Position (Proprietary)

制限付き純資産（企業会計区分）

外部からの制約がある純資産

Resources restricted by external parties are reported as restricted net position.

GASB Statement No. 34

GASB基準書第34号

政府会計の基本報告モデルを確立した基準

GASB 34 established the current financial reporting model for state and local governments.

Direct Method (CF Statement)

直接法（CF計算書）

企業会計区分のCF計算書は直接法が必須

Proprietary funds must present operating cash flows using the direct method.

Permanent Fund

永久基金

元本を保持し運用益のみ使用。政府の受益者向け

A permanent fund preserves principal while using earnings for government programs.

Private-Purpose Trust Fund

私的目的信託基金

外部の個人・組織が受益者。Fiduciary Fund

A private-purpose trust fund benefits individuals or organizations outside the government.

Pension Trust Fund

年金信託基金

政府職員の年金資産を管理。Fiduciary Fund

A pension trust fund accounts for resources held in trust for government employee pensions.

Custodial Fund

保管基金

一時的に保有する他者の資源。旧Agency Fund

A custodial fund holds resources temporarily on behalf of other governments or entities.

Investment Trust Fund

投資信託基金

外部の投資プール参加者の資金を管理

An investment trust fund reports the external portion of investment pools.

Fiduciary Fund Exclusion from GW

受託基金のGWからの除外

受託基金は政府全体FSに含まれない。資源が政府のものでないため

Fiduciary funds are excluded from government-wide statements because resources do not belong to the government.

Nonspendable Fund Balance

非消費基金残高

法的に消費できない基金残高。永久基金の元本等

The principal of a permanent fund is classified as nonspendable fund balance.

Statement of Fiduciary Net Position

受託純資産変動計算書

受託基金のB/S。資産 - 負債 = Net Position

The statement of fiduciary net position presents assets, liabilities, and net position held in trust.