Financial Statement Audit
財務諸表監査
AUD科目の主題そのもの
A financial statement audit provides reasonable assurance that the F/S are free from material misstatement.
Reasonable Assurance
合理的保証
100%ではなく「高い水準の」保証。absoluteは存在しない
The auditor's objective is to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the F/S are free from material misstatement.
Auditor
監査人
意見を言う人。作る人（Management）とは別
The auditor is responsible for expressing an opinion on the financial statements.
Management
経営者
財務諸表の作成責任者。監査人ではない
Management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of the financial statements.
Independence
独立性
監査の命。これがないと意見に価値がない
The auditor must maintain independence in both fact and appearance.
Unmodified (Unqualified) Opinion
無限定適正意見
問題なしの意見。健康診断で「異常なし」
When F/S are fairly presented in all material respects, the auditor issues an unmodified opinion.
Qualified Opinion
限定付適正意見
「～を除き適正」。except forがキーワード
A qualified opinion states the F/S are fairly presented except for the effects of the matter described.
Adverse Opinion
不適正意見
「適正に表示していない」。赤信号
An adverse opinion is issued when misstatements are both material and pervasive to the F/S.
Disclaimer of Opinion
意見不表明
証拠不足で意見を言えない。検査拒否と同じ
A disclaimer of opinion is appropriate when the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence.
Assertion
アサーション（経営者の主張）
監査の「チェックリスト」。全手続の出発点
Audit procedures should be designed to test management's assertions about account balances.
Occurrence
発生
記録された取引が実際に起きたか
The occurrence assertion addresses whether recorded transactions actually took place.
Completeness
網羅性（完全性）
記録すべき全てが記録されているか
Testing for completeness helps ensure all transactions that should be recorded have been recorded.
Existence
実在性
記録された資産・負債が実際に存在するか
Physical inventory counts primarily address the existence assertion for inventory.
Valuation and Allocation
評価と配分
適切な金額で記録されているか
The allowance for doubtful accounts relates to the valuation and allocation assertion.
Rights and Obligations
権利と義務
資産は会社のもの？負債は会社が負っている？
Confirming that the entity holds title to assets addresses the rights and obligations assertion.
Accuracy
正確性
金額と日付が正しく記録されているか
Recalculating invoice totals provides evidence about the accuracy of recorded transactions.
Classification
分類
正しい勘定科目に記録されているか
Reviewing lease terms helps test the classification of leases as operating or financing.
Cutoff
期間帰属
正しい期間に記録されているか。期末前後は要注意
Examining sales transactions near year-end primarily tests the cutoff assertion.
Presentation and Disclosure
表示と開示
適切に表示・開示されているか
The auditor should verify that related-party transactions meet the presentation and disclosure requirements.
Audit Evidence
監査証拠
意見の根拠となる情報
The auditor must obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to support the opinion.
Sufficiency
十分性
証拠の「量」の尺度
Sufficiency is the measure of the quantity of audit evidence obtained.
Appropriateness
適切性
証拠の「質」の尺度。Relevance + Reliability
Appropriateness is the measure of the quality of audit evidence, including relevance and reliability.
Relevance
関連性
証拠が監査目的に関連しているか
Evidence is considered relevant when it has relevance to the assertion being tested.
Reliability
信頼性
証拠がどれだけ信頼できるか
External confirmations generally have higher reliability than internally generated documents.
Audit Risk
監査リスク
AR = IR x CR x DR
Audit risk is the risk that the auditor expresses an inappropriate opinion on materially misstated F/S.
Inherent Risk (IR)
固有リスク
統制なしで虚偽表示が起きやすいリスク
Complex accounting estimates typically have higher inherent risk than routine transactions.
Control Risk (CR)
統制リスク
内部統制が虚偽表示を防止・発見できないリスク
Control risk is assessed based on the effectiveness of the entity's internal controls.
Detection Risk (DR)
発見リスク
監査人の手続が見逃すリスク。唯一コントロール可能
Detection risk is the only component of audit risk that the auditor can directly control.
Risk of Material Misstatement (RMM)
重要な虚偽表示リスク
IR x CR。監査人がコントロールできない
The risk of material misstatement is a combination of inherent risk and control risk.
Material Misstatement
重要な虚偽表示
利用者の判断に影響する程度の誤り
The auditor plans the audit to detect material misstatements whether caused by error or fraud.
Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS)
一般に公正妥当と認められた監査基準
非上場企業の監査基準
Audits of nonissuers are conducted in accordance with GAAS as issued by the ASB.
Auditing Standards Board (ASB)
監査基準審議会
AICPAの下で非上場企業のGAASを制定
The ASB is responsible for issuing Statements on Auditing Standards for nonissuers.
Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB)
公開会社会計監督委員会
上場企業の監査基準を制定。非政府機関
The PCAOB establishes auditing standards for audits of issuers (public companies).
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
証券取引委員会
PCAOBの監督機関
The SEC has oversight authority over the PCAOB.
Issuer
上場企業（SEC登録企業）
PCAOB基準が適用される
An issuer is subject to PCAOB auditing standards and must file reports with the SEC.
Nonissuer
非上場企業
AICPA基準（SAS）が適用される
Audits of a nonissuer are conducted under AICPA standards (SAS).
Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX)
サーベンス・オクスリー法
PCAOB設立の根拠法。企業改革法
The Sarbanes-Oxley Act established the PCAOB to oversee audits of public companies.
Integrated Audit
統合監査
財務諸表監査 + ICFR監査の同時実施
An integrated audit combines the audit of F/S with the audit of internal control over financial reporting.
Professional Skepticism
職業的懐疑心
疑問を持つ心。CriticizingではなくQuestioning
The auditor should exercise professional skepticism throughout the planning and performance of the audit.
Due Professional Care
正当な注意
合理的な能力を持つ監査人が払うべき注意
Due professional care requires the auditor to plan and perform the audit with competence and diligence.
Engagement Risk
契約リスク
監査リスクより広い概念。訴訟・評判・報酬回収リスクを含む。契約受諾判断で考慮
The auditor should evaluate engagement risk before accepting a new audit client.
Professional Judgment
職業的判断
知識・経験に基づく合理的な判断。cf. Professional Skepticismと両輪で必要
Professional judgment is essential in determining the nature, timing, and extent of audit procedures.
Audit Committee Communication
監査委員会への伝達
監査計画・重要発見事項・困難等をTCWGに報告。書面が原則
The auditor must communicate significant audit findings to the audit committee in a timely manner.
Audit Documentation
監査の文書化
監査手続・証拠・結論の記録。Issuer: 7年保存・60日以内完成。Nonissuer: 5年
Audit documentation should be sufficient to enable an experienced auditor to understand the work performed.
Scope of the Audit
監査の範囲
監査手続の範囲と深さ。Engagement Letterで明記。制限されると意見への影響あり
The scope of the audit defines the boundaries of the procedures to be performed by the auditor.
Materiality
重要性
利用者の判断に影響する「フィルター」
Materiality is determined based on the needs of a reasonable user of the financial statements.
Performance Materiality
実績重要性
全体重要性より低く設定する「安全マージン」
Performance materiality is set lower than overall materiality to reduce aggregation risk.
Clearly Trivial
明らかに僅少な
この金額以下なら累積不要
Misstatements below the clearly trivial threshold need not be accumulated.
Qualitative Materiality
定性的重要性
金額が小さくても性質が問題なら重要
A related-party transaction may be material due to qualitative materiality even if the amount is small.
Error
誤謬
意図しない虚偽表示。うっかりミス
An error is an unintentional misstatement in the financial statements.
Fraud
不正
意図的な虚偽表示
Fraud involves intentional misstatements, including fraudulent financial reporting and misappropriation of assets.
Fraudulent Financial Reporting
不正な財務報告
利益粉飾が主目的の不正
Fraudulent financial reporting involves intentional misstatements to deceive financial statement users.
Misappropriation of Assets
資産の横領
会社の資産を盗む不正
Misappropriation of assets involves theft of an entity's assets, such as embezzlement or inventory theft.
Fraud Triangle
不正のトライアングル
Pressure + Opportunity + Rationalization
The fraud triangle consists of pressure, opportunity, and rationalization.
Pressure (Incentive)
圧力（動機）
不正を犯す動機。株価連動報酬など
Compensation tied to stock price is an example of pressure to commit fraudulent financial reporting.
Opportunity
機会
不正を実行できる環境。職務分離の不備など
Weak internal controls create the opportunity for fraud to occur.
Rationalization
正当化
「自分だけは許される」という心理
Rationalization allows perpetrators to justify dishonest actions in their own minds.
Direct Effect Noncompliance
直接的準拠違反
税法違反など財務諸表に直接影響する違反
Violations of tax laws are examples of direct effect noncompliance that affect reported amounts.
Indirect Effect Noncompliance
間接的準拠違反
環境法違反など間接的に影響する違反
Environmental regulation violations are examples of indirect effect noncompliance.
Noncompliance with Laws and Regulations
法令への準拠違反
法規に従っていない状態
The auditor should consider the possible effects of identified noncompliance with laws and regulations.
Summary of Unadjusted Misstatements (SUD)
未修正虚偽表示の要約
未修正の虚偽表示一覧。TCWGに伝達必須。重要性を超えると意見修正
The auditor should communicate the summary of unadjusted misstatements to those charged with governance.
Fraud Risk Factors
不正リスク要因
不正の存在を示唆する状況。Fraud Triangleの3要素（動機・機会・正当化）に対応
The auditor should identify and assess fraud risk factors related to fraudulent financial reporting.
Revenue Recognition
収益認識
試験頻出。全ての監査で不正リスクがあると推定。反証可能だが実務上は維持
Revenue recognition is presumed to be a fraud risk in every audit engagement.
Journal Entry Testing
仕訳テスト
Management Override対応で必須。期末の異常仕訳を重点的にテスト
Journal entry testing is a required procedure to address the risk of management override of controls.
Management Bias
経営者の偏向
会計見積りを意図的に歪める傾向。楽観的/悲観的バイアスの兆候を評価
The auditor should evaluate whether management bias exists in accounting estimates.
Presumed Risk of Fraud in Revenue
収益における不正の推定リスク
SAS/PCAOB共通の推定。反証には十分な根拠が必要。cf. Revenue Recognition
Auditing standards require a presumption that there is a risk of fraud in revenue recognition.
Whistleblower
内部告発者
SOX Sec.806で報復から保護。不正発見の最大の情報源。匿名通報制度と連携
The Sarbanes-Oxley Act provides protection for whistleblowers who report corporate fraud.
Management Integrity
経営者の誠実性
契約受諾・継続の判断要素。前任監査人への照会で確認。低ければ辞退を検討
The auditor should evaluate management integrity as part of the client acceptance process.
Unmodified Opinion
無修正意見
問題なし。最も望ましい意見
An unmodified opinion is expressed when the F/S are presented fairly in all material respects.
Modified Opinion
修正意見
Qualified / Adverse / Disclaimerの総称
A modified opinion includes qualified, adverse, and disclaimer of opinion.
Material
重要な
利用者の判断に影響を与える程度
A misstatement is material if it could influence the economic decisions of users.
Pervasive
広範な
財務諸表の多くの要素に影響する
A misstatement is considered pervasive when it affects a substantial proportion of the F/S.
Emphasis-of-Matter Paragraph
強調事項区分
意見を変えずに注意を促す。Going concern等
An emphasis-of-matter paragraph is added to draw attention to a going concern uncertainty.
Other-Matter Paragraph
その他の事項区分
財務諸表の表示以外の事項を伝える
An other-matter paragraph refers to matters not presented or disclosed in the F/S.
Going Concern
継続企業の前提
会社が今後12ヶ月存続できるかの疑念
The auditor should evaluate whether there is substantial doubt about the entity's going concern status.
Substantial Doubt
重大な疑義
Going concernに関する重大な疑い
If substantial doubt exists about going concern, an emphasis-of-matter paragraph is required.
Comparative Financial Statements
比較財務諸表
当期と前期を並べた財務諸表
When reporting on comparative financial statements, the auditor updates the opinion on prior-period F/S.
Required Supplementary Information (RSI)
必須の補足情報
基本財務諸表に添付する必須の補足情報
The auditor performs limited procedures on required supplementary information but does not audit it.
Supplementary Information
補足情報
財務諸表に任意で添付する情報
The auditor may report on supplementary information in relation to the F/S as a whole.
Other Information
その他の情報
年次報告書に含まれるが監査対象外の情報
The auditor reads the other information to identify material inconsistencies with the audited F/S.
Critical Audit Matters (CAM)
重要な監査事項
PCAOB基準で記載必須。Issuerのみ
Critical audit matters are matters communicated to the audit committee that involved especially challenging judgments.
Key Audit Matters (KAM)
監査上の主要な検討事項
ISA基準でのCAM相当
Under ISA, key audit matters are disclosed in the auditor's report for listed entities.
Report of Independent Auditor
独立監査人の報告書
監査報告書のタイトル
The title "Report of Independent Auditor" is required to indicate the auditor's independence.
Basis for Opinion
意見の根拠
報告書の必須セクション。GAAS/PCAOB準拠・独立性・証拠の十分性を記載
The Basis for Opinion section states the audit was conducted in accordance with GAAS and the auditor is independent.
Responsibilities of Management
経営者の責任
F/S作成・IC維持・GC評価の責任。監査人の責任と明確に区別される
The auditor's report describes management's responsibilities for the preparation and fair presentation of F/S.
Responsibilities of the Auditor
監査人の責任
合理的保証の取得・RMM識別・IC理解・手続設計の責任を記載するセクション
The auditor's report describes the auditor's responsibilities in obtaining reasonable assurance about the F/S.
Group Financial Statements
グループ財務諸表
連結F/S。Group AuditorがComponent Auditorの作業を評価・監督する
When auditing group financial statements, the group auditor must evaluate the work of component auditors.
Audit Committee Paragraph
監査委員会に関する記載
PCAOB報告書特有。CAMの伝達・監査人の任期年数を記載。SAS報告書にはない
The PCAOB auditor's report includes a paragraph describing communication with the audit committee.
Departure from GAAP
GAAPからの逸脱
限定意見 or 不適正意見の原因
A material departure from GAAP requires the auditor to issue a qualified or adverse opinion.
Scope Limitation
監査範囲の制限
限定意見 or 意見差控の原因
A scope limitation may result in a qualified opinion or a disclaimer of opinion.
Group Engagement Partner
グループ業務担当パートナー
グループ監査全体の責任者
The group engagement partner is responsible for the direction and supervision of the group audit.
Component Auditor
構成要素の監査人
子会社等の監査を担当する監査人
The component auditor performs work on the financial information of a subsidiary.
Component Materiality
構成要素の重要性
グループ全体より低く設定
Component materiality is set lower than group materiality to address aggregation risk.
Special Purpose Framework
特別目的フレームワーク
現金主義・税法基準・規定基準・契約基準の4種
Cash basis and tax basis are examples of a special purpose framework.
Summary Financial Statements
要約財務諸表
完全な監査済FSを基に作成された簡略版
Summary financial statements are derived from audited financial statements but contain less detail.
Piecemeal Opinion
ピースミール・オピニオン
意見差控/不適正の後に一部を肯定する意見。禁止
Issuing a piecemeal opinion after a disclaimer or adverse opinion is prohibited.
Cash Basis
現金主義
現金の収支で記録する会計基準
Financial statements prepared on the cash basis recognize revenue when cash is received.
Tax Basis
税法基準
税法に準拠した会計基準
A tax basis framework follows the income tax rules for recognition and measurement.
Regulatory Basis
規定基準
規制当局の要求に準拠した基準
A regulatory basis of accounting is prescribed by a governmental regulatory agency.
Contractual Basis
契約基準
契約条項に準拠した基準
A contractual basis of accounting is established by the terms of a contract.
Division of Responsibility
責任の分担
他の監査人の作業に言及。SASでは言及可、PCAOBでは原則不可
The group auditor may make reference to the division of responsibility with the component auditor.
Restricting Use of Report
報告書の使用制限
特定利用者のみに配布制限。Special Purpose FWや合意された手続で使用
Reports on special purpose frameworks typically include a paragraph restricting use to specified parties.
Other Comprehensive Basis of Accounting (OCBOA)
包括的な会計の他の基準
現在はSpecial Purpose FWと呼ぶ。Cash/Tax/Regulatory/Contractual basisの4種
OCBOA includes cash basis, tax basis, regulatory basis, and contractual basis frameworks.
Alert-Form Report
警告型報告書
特別目的FW使用を読者に注意喚起。GAAPとの差異を利用者に理解させる目的
An alert-form report is used to notify readers that the financial statements are prepared on a special purpose framework.
Specified Element
特定の要素
特定の勘定科目・項目のみの監査。F/S全体の意見よりも重要性が低くなる
An auditor may be engaged to report on a specified element such as accounts receivable.
Engagement Letter
監査契約書
CPA責任・クライアント責任・限界を明記
An engagement letter should specify the responsibilities of management and the auditor.
Predecessor Auditor
前任監査人
契約前に連絡する。依頼人の了解が必要
The successor auditor should communicate with the predecessor auditor before accepting the engagement.
Successor Auditor
後任監査人
前任に質問して引き受けるか判断
The successor auditor should inquire of the predecessor regarding disagreements with management.
Overall Audit Strategy
全体的な監査戦略
監査計画の上位概念
The overall audit strategy sets the scope, timing, and direction of the audit.
Audit Plan
監査計画
具体的な監査手続の計画
The audit plan includes the nature, timing, and extent of planned audit procedures.
Audit Program
監査手続書
監査手続の詳細な指示書。書面作成が義務
An audit program sets forth the specific procedures to be performed during the engagement.
Working Papers
監査調書
監査の証跡。報告書の主要な裏付け
Working papers document the audit procedures performed, evidence obtained, and conclusions reached.
Preconditions for an Audit
監査の前提条件
監査受諾前に確認。適用FW＋経営者の責任の了解＋情報アクセスの同意
The auditor must establish that preconditions for an audit are present before accepting the engagement.
Terms of Engagement
業務の条件
Engagement Letterに記載。監査範囲・責任・報酬・FW等の合意事項
The terms of engagement should be documented in an engagement letter signed by both parties.
Understanding the Entity
企業の理解
業界・事業・IC・FW・目標戦略の理解。全てのリスク評価の基礎となる
Understanding the entity and its environment is essential for identifying risks of material misstatement.
Risk Assessment Procedures
リスク評価手続
Inquiry+Analytical Procedures+Observation/Inspectionの3つ。必ず全て実施
Risk assessment procedures include inquiries, analytical procedures, and observation to identify RMM.
Materiality Determination
重要性の決定
計画段階で設定。通常は税引前利益の5%等をベンチマーク。監査中に改訂可
Materiality determination at the planning stage sets the threshold for evaluating misstatements.
Audit Committee Pre-Approval
監査委員会の事前承認
SOX要件。全ての監査・非監査サービスに事前承認必須。De minimis例外あり
Under SOX, the audit committee must pre-approve all audit and non-audit services provided by the auditor.
Nature, Timing, and Extent
種類・時期・範囲
監査手続の3要素。リスクが高いほど手続を強化（種類変更・時期を期末に・範囲拡大）
The auditor determines the nature, timing, and extent of further audit procedures based on assessed risks.
Supervision
監督
Engagement Partnerの責任。補助者の作業を指揮・レビュー。品質管理の一環
The engagement partner is responsible for the supervision of assistants performing the audit.
Internal Control
内部統制
財務報告の信頼性等を確保する仕組み
Internal control is a process designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of financial reporting.
COSO Internal Control — Integrated Framework
COSO内部統制フレームワーク
5構成要素・17原則の出典
The COSO Internal Control — Integrated Framework identifies five interrelated components of internal control.
Control Environment
統制環境
他の全ての構成要素の土台。組織の「体質」
The control environment is the foundation for all other components of internal control.
Risk Assessment
リスク評価
目的達成を脅かすリスクの識別・分析
The entity's risk assessment process identifies and analyzes risks relevant to financial reporting objectives.
Control Activities
統制活動
方針・手続。職務分離、承認、照合など
Control activities are the policies and procedures that help ensure management directives are carried out.
Information and Communication
情報と伝達
情報の入手と組織内外への伝達
Information and communication systems support the identification and exchange of relevant information.
Monitoring Activities
監視活動
内部統制が有効に機能し続けているかの確認
Monitoring activities assess whether internal control components continue to function effectively over time.
Segregation of Duties
職務分離
Authorization / Recording / Custody の3分離
Proper segregation of duties separates authorization, recording, and custody functions among different employees.
Authorization
承認
取引を承認する権限
Authorization of transactions should be performed by personnel independent of the recording function.
Recording (Recordkeeping)
記録
取引を帳簿に記録する機能
The recording function should be separate from the custody of related assets.
Custody
保管
資産を物理的に保管する機能
Employees with custody of assets should not also have access to accounting records.
Inherent Limitations
固有の限界
Management override, Collusion, Judgment errors
Inherent limitations of internal control include management override and collusion among employees.
Management Override
経営者による統制の無視
内部統制の最大の限界。トップの不正
Management override of controls is an inherent limitation that cannot be fully mitigated by internal control.
Collusion
共謀
複数人が結託して不正を行うこと
Collusion among employees can circumvent even well-designed internal controls.
Design Effectiveness
設計の有効性
統制が適切に設計されているか
The auditor evaluates design effectiveness to determine if the control can prevent or detect misstatements.
Operating Effectiveness
運用の有効性
統制が設計通りに運用されているか
Testing operating effectiveness determines whether the control operated as designed throughout the period.
Walkthrough
ウォークスルー
取引を発生から報告まで追跡する手続
A walkthrough traces a transaction from initiation through processing to recording in the financial statements.
Flowchart
フローチャート
内部統制を図式化した文書。処理の順序を重視
A flowchart provides a diagrammatic representation of the entity's internal control system.
Decision Table
ディシジョン・テーブル
条件と行動の論理的関係を表す表
A decision table presents the logical relationships between conditions and resulting actions.
Tone at the Top
トップの姿勢
統制環境の最重要要素。経営者の倫理観が全社の文化を形成。試験頻出
Tone at the top reflects management's attitude toward ethics and internal control, influencing the entire organization.
Board of Directors
取締役会
統制環境の構成要素。独立性・専門性が重要。Audit Committeeの母体
An active and independent board of directors strengthens the entity's control environment.
IT Dependency
IT依存度
IT依存度が高い→ITGCテスト必須。自動化統制の信頼性に直結する
The auditor should assess IT dependency to determine the extent of IT general controls testing.
Risk Response
リスク対応
Accept/Avoid/Mitigate/Transferの4つ。リスク評価の次ステップ
Management's risk response may include accepting, avoiding, mitigating, or transferring the identified risk.
Tests of Controls
統制テスト
統制の運用の有効性を検証する手続
An auditor performs tests of controls to determine whether internal controls are operating effectively.
Substantive Tests
実証性テスト
金額の正しさを直接検証する手続
When control risk is assessed at maximum, the auditor should increase substantive tests.
Tests of Details
詳細テスト
取引・残高・開示の個別検証
The auditor performed tests of details of account balances to verify reported amounts.
Deviation
逸脱
統制テストで発見した統制からの逸脱
A higher rate of deviation indicates the control is not operating effectively.
Three-Way Match
三者照合
PO + Receiving Report + Vendor Invoice
The client's three-way match compares the purchase order, receiving report, and vendor invoice before payment.
Purchase Order (PO)
注文書
購入を発注する書類
Before goods are received, management should verify the purchase order was properly authorized.
Receiving Report
物品受領書
物品の受け取りを記録する書類
A prenumbered receiving report should be prepared for all goods received.
Vendor Invoice
納入業者の請求書
業者からの請求書
The accounts payable clerk should match the vendor invoice to the receiving report before recording.
Prenumbered Documents
連番管理された書類
網羅性確保のための統制
Using prenumbered documents is a control designed to ensure completeness of recorded transactions.
Deficiency
不備
内部統制の設計または運用の問題
A deficiency exists when a control does not allow timely prevention or detection of misstatements.
Significant Deficiency (SD)
重要な不備
注意に値する不備。書面報告が必要
The auditor must communicate any significant deficiency in writing to those charged with governance.
Material Weakness (MW)
重大な欠陥
重要な虚偽表示が防止・発見されない可能性。書面報告必須
A material weakness requires the auditor to express an adverse opinion on ICFR.
Remittance Advice
送金通知書
顧客からの送金に添付される支払明細
The mailroom clerk should separate checks from remittance advices upon receipt.
Lapping
ラッピング
入金の流用と穴埋めの連鎖。売掛金で発生
Confirming accounts receivable helps detect lapping of cash receipts.
Kiting
カイティング
銀行間振替のタイムラグを悪用。現金の水増し
Preparing a bank transfer schedule near year-end is most effective for detecting kiting.
Bank Transfer Schedule
銀行間振替スケジュール
期末前後の銀行間振替を一覧化。Kitingの検出が主目的。日付の不一致に注目
A bank transfer schedule lists all interbank transfers near year-end to detect possible kiting.
Sales Cycle Controls
販売サイクルの統制
受注→出荷→請求→回収の統制。職務分離と承認がポイント。Revenue不正と関連
Sales cycle controls ensure that sales are properly authorized, recorded, and collected.
Payroll Cycle Controls
給与サイクルの統制
Ghost Employee（架空従業員）防止が最重要。勤怠記録と支給の職務分離が鍵
Payroll cycle controls should prevent payments to fictitious employees through proper authorization.
Aged Trial Balance
年齢分析表
売掛金の経過日数別残高。貸倒引当金の見積り評価に使用。Valuation assertionと関連
The auditor reviews the aged trial balance to assess the collectibility of accounts receivable.
Reconciliation
照合
2つの記録の突合せ。銀行照合が代表例。発見的統制（Detective Control）に分類
Monthly bank reconciliation is a key detective control for identifying errors in cash records.
Inspection
閲覧・査閲
記録や文書を調べる手続
The auditor performed inspection of supporting documents to verify the recorded transaction.
Observation
観察
プロセスの実行を見る手続
Observation of the client's inventory count provides evidence about the existence assertion.
External Confirmation
外部確認
第三者から直接回答を得る手続
External confirmation of accounts receivable provides highly reliable audit evidence.
Inquiry
質問
経営者や従業員に聞く手続。単独では不十分
Inquiry alone is not sufficient to provide adequate audit evidence.
Recalculation
再計算
数学的正確性を自ら計算して確認
The auditor used recalculation to verify the mathematical accuracy of the depreciation schedule.
Reperformance
再実施
統制手続を監査人が自ら実行して確認
Reperformance of the bank reconciliation provides evidence that the control operated effectively.
Analytical Procedures
分析的手続
データ間の関係を分析する手続
Analytical procedures are required during the planning and overall review stages of an audit.
Positive Confirmation
積極的確認
全ての相手に回答を求める。RMM高い場合
Positive confirmation requests require the recipient to respond whether or not they agree.
Negative Confirmation
消極的確認
不一致がある場合のみ回答を求める。RMM低い場合
Negative confirmation is appropriate when the risk of material misstatement is low.
Blank Form Confirmation
白地式確認状
金額欄が空白。注意を払わない相手に有効
A blank form confirmation requires the respondent to fill in the balance, increasing reliability.
Accounting Estimates
会計上の見積り
主観的判断を含む。合理性（reasonableness）を評価
The auditor should evaluate the reasonableness of accounting estimates made by management.
Substantive Analytical Procedures
実証的分析的手続
実施段階で実証性テストとして使う分析的手続
Substantive analytical procedures may be used to provide evidence about account balance assertions.
Trend Analysis
トレンド分析
同一項目を時間軸で比較する
The auditor used trend analysis to compare revenue figures over the past three years.
Ratio Analysis
比率分析
財務項目間の関係を比率で表現
Ratio analysis of the current ratio revealed an unusual decline requiring further investigation.
Incremental Audit Risk
追加的監査リスク
期中テスト実施時の空白期間のリスク
Testing at an interim date increases the incremental audit risk for the remaining period.
Vouching
証憑突合
帳簿→原始証拠の方向。Occurrence/Existenceテスト。cf. Tracingと逆方向
Vouching traces recorded transactions back to supporting documents to test the occurrence assertion.
Tracing
追跡
原始証拠→帳簿の方向。Completenessテスト。cf. Vouchingと逆方向。試験頻出
Tracing source documents to the accounting records tests the completeness assertion.
Cutoff Bank Statement
カットオフ銀行勘定明細書
期末後7〜10日間の銀行明細書を銀行から直接入手。未決済小切手の検証に使用
A cutoff bank statement covering 7 to 10 days after year-end is used to verify outstanding checks.
Substantive Test of Transactions
取引の実証性テスト
個別取引レベルの検証。cf. Test of Detailsの一部。Accuracy/Classificationをテスト
A substantive test of transactions verifies that recorded amounts are accurate and properly classified.
Management Representation
経営者の陳述
全監査で必須の書面。F/S日付で取得。拒否されたら意見差控。Representation Letter
Management representation is required for every audit and covers material matters about the financial statements.
Bank Confirmation
銀行確認状
預金と借入金の残高を裏付ける
A bank confirmation provides evidence of deposit balances and outstanding loans.
Bank Reconciliation
銀行勘定調整表
帳簿残高と銀行残高の差異を調整
The auditor reviewed the client's bank reconciliation for unusual reconciling items.
Simultaneous Verification
同時検証
全ての現金を同時に検証。資金移動の隠蔽を防ぐ
Simultaneous verification of all cash funds prevents concealment through transfers between accounts.
Proof of Cash
キャッシュ・プルーフ
月間の現金取引を4列で検証する手続
A proof of cash reconciles both the bank balance and recorded cash receipts and disbursements.
Accounts Receivable Confirmation
売掛金確認状
顧客に残高を確認する手続
Sending accounts receivable confirmations directly to customers provides reliable evidence of existence.
Alternative Procedures
代替手続
確認状の回答がない場合に実施する手続
When no reply is received to a confirmation, the auditor should perform alternative procedures.
Physical Inventory Observation
実地棚卸の立会い
棚卸資産の実在性を確認する監査手続
Physical inventory observation is a generally accepted auditing procedure for verifying inventory existence.
Test Count
テストカウント
監査人が独自に実施する棚卸数量の検証
During the inventory observation, the auditor should perform test counts and compare results.
Inventory Tags
棚卸タグ
棚卸時に商品に付けるタグ
The auditor should record the last inventory tag numbers used to test completeness.
Custodian
保管業者
有価証券を保管する独立した機関
The auditor confirmed the securities held by the custodian through direct confirmation.
Repairs and Maintenance Analysis
修繕維持費分析
固定資産に計上すべき支出を費用処理していないか
Repairs and maintenance analysis detects capital expenditures improperly charged to expense.
Unrecorded Liabilities
未記録の負債
期末後の支払記録から逆追跡で発見
Examining cash disbursements after year-end is a procedure to detect unrecorded liabilities.
Transfer Agent
名義書換代理人
株式の名義書換を代行する機関
Confirmation from the transfer agent provides evidence about the number of shares outstanding.
Board of Directors Minutes
取締役会議事録
資本取引の証拠として最も有用
Reviewing the board of directors minutes provides evidence of authorized stock transactions.
Subsequent Cash Receipts
期末後の入金
確認状の代替手続。期末後の入金で売掛金の実在性・評価を検証
Reviewing subsequent cash receipts provides evidence about the existence and valuation of receivables.
Aged Receivables Analysis
売掛金年齢分析
30/60/90日超で分類。貸倒引当金の妥当性評価に必須。Valuationアサーション
An aged receivables analysis helps the auditor evaluate the reasonableness of the allowance for doubtful accounts.
Lower of Cost or NRV Test
低価法テスト
棚卸資産のValuation。原価 vs NRVの低い方で計上。ASC330/IAS2準拠
The auditor performs the lower of cost or NRV test to verify proper valuation of inventory.
Roll-Forward Procedures
ロールフォワード手続
期中テスト結果を期末に延長。残余期間のリスク評価が必要。効率化の手法
Roll-forward procedures extend interim audit work to cover the remaining period through year-end.
Debt Covenant Compliance
財務制限条項の遵守
借入条件の遵守確認。違反→期限の利益喪失→Going Concern疑義に直結
The auditor should evaluate whether the entity is in compliance with debt covenants that could affect going concern.
Internal Control over Financial Reporting (ICFR)
財務報告に係る内部統制
SOX法で監査が義務付けられた
An integrated audit includes an audit of financial statements and ICFR.
SOX Section 302
SOX第302条
経営者による四半期ごとのIC認証
Under SOX Section 302, the CEO and CFO must certify internal controls each quarter.
SOX Section 404
SOX第404条
経営者のIC報告書 + 監査人のIC監査
SOX Section 404 requires management's assessment and an independent audit of ICFR.
SOX Section 906
SOX第906条
財務報告の認証に関する刑事罰
SOX Section 906 imposes criminal penalties for knowingly certifying false financial reports.
Top-Down Approach
トップダウンアプローチ
Entity → Significant → Sources → Selection
The auditor uses a top-down approach to identify controls to test in an ICFR audit.
Entity-Level Controls
事業体レベルの統制
組織全体に影響する統制
Entity-level controls include management's risk assessment process and monitoring activities.
Significant Account
重要な勘定科目
重要な虚偽表示リスクがある勘定
The auditor identifies each significant account likely to contain material misstatement.
Deficiency in Design
設計上の不備
統制が適切に設計されていない
A deficiency in design exists when a necessary control is missing or improperly designed.
Deficiency in Operation
運用上の不備
統制が設計通りに運用されていない
A deficiency in operation exists when a properly designed control does not operate as intended.
As of Date
評価基準日
ICFR報告書の「時点」。会計年度末
The auditor's opinion on ICFR is expressed as of the fiscal year-end date.
Key Controls
重要な統制
ICFR監査でテスト対象となる統制。重要勘定のRMMに対応するものを選定
The auditor identifies key controls that must be tested to support the opinion on ICFR.
Remediation
是正措置
MW是正後、十分な運用期間を経てテストしないと有効と結論できない
Management's remediation of a material weakness must be tested before the auditor can issue an unqualified opinion on ICFR.
Filer Category
提出者区分
Large Accelerated($700M超)/Accelerated($75M超)/Non-accelerated。ICFR外部監査要件に影響
The filer category determines whether a company is required to have an external audit of ICFR.
Compensating Controls
補完的統制
主要統制の不備を補う代替統制。MWの深刻度を軽減するが完全には解消しない
Compensating controls may mitigate the severity of a control deficiency but do not eliminate it entirely.
Scope Limitation in ICFR
ICFR監査における範囲制限
経営者の制限→Disclaimer。重要な構成単位の除外等が該当
A scope limitation in an ICFR audit may result in a disclaimer of opinion on internal controls.
Management Representation Letter
経営者確認書
補完であり代替ではない。署名はCEO+CFO
A management representation letter complements but does not replace other audit evidence.
Those Charged with Governance (TCWG)
ガバナンスに責任を負う者
監査委員会等。双方向のコミュニケーション
The auditor must communicate significant findings to those charged with governance.
Subsequent Events
後発事象
期末日後に発生した事象
The auditor should perform procedures to identify subsequent events through the report date.
Type I Subsequent Event
Type I（修正型）後発事象
期末前に原因あり→財務諸表を修正
A Type I subsequent event requires adjustment of the financial statements.
Type II Subsequent Event
Type II（開示型）後発事象
期末後に原因発生→注記で開示
A Type II subsequent event requires disclosure in the notes but no adjustment.
Dual Dating
二重日付
特定の後発事象のみに責任を限定する
Dual dating limits the auditor's responsibility to the specific subsequent event disclosed.
Omitted Procedures
欠落した手続
報告書発行後に必要な手続の欠落が判明
Upon discovering omitted procedures, the auditor should assess their effect on the report.
Permanent File
永久ファイル
複数年にわたる情報を保管する監査調書
The corporate charter is typically maintained in the permanent file of the working papers.
Current File
当期ファイル
当期固有の情報を保管する監査調書
The bank reconciliation for the audit year is kept in the current file.
Attorney Letter
弁護士への確認状
経営者経由で弁護士に送付。訴訟・未確定債務の情報入手。無回答は範囲制限
An attorney letter is sent to the client's legal counsel to corroborate information about litigation and claims.
Commitment
コミットメント（確約）
将来の購入契約・リース等の義務。cf. Contingencyと区別。注記開示が必要
The auditor should evaluate whether material commitments have been properly disclosed in the financial statements.
Reportable Condition
報告すべき状況
旧用語。現在はSD（Significant Deficiency）に相当。TCWGへ書面で報告
A reportable condition is a deficiency in internal control that should be communicated to governance.
Legal Liability
法的責任
Common Law（契約/不法行為）+ Statutory Law（1933/1934証券法）。立証責任が異なる
An auditor's legal liability may arise under common law or statutory law for negligent performance.
Report Release Date
報告書の発行日
報告書を依頼人に提供する日。Subsequent Eventsの責任はこの日まで
The auditor's responsibility for subsequent events extends through the report release date.
Specialist
専門家
会計・監査以外の分野の専門家。内部監査人は含まない
The auditor may use the work of a specialist to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence.
Actuary
保険数理士
年金債務の計算に使われる典型的な専門家
An actuary is typically engaged to assist in measuring pension obligations.
Appraiser
鑑定人
不動産の公正価値評価に使われる
The auditor engaged an appraiser to evaluate the fair value of real estate held.
Letter of Audit Inquiry
弁護士確認状
訴訟・請求・賦課に関する情報の裏付け
A letter of audit inquiry is sent to the client's attorney to corroborate litigation disclosures.
Litigation, Claims, and Assessments
訴訟、請求、賦課
弁護士確認状で確認する3つの事項
The attorney's response describes pending litigation, claims, and assessments against the entity.
Internal Auditor
内部監査人
Competence + Objectivityで評価
The external auditor evaluates the internal auditor's competence and objectivity before relying on their work.
SOC 1 Report
SOC 1報告書
委託企業のICFRに関連する受託企業の統制
A SOC 1 report addresses controls at a service organization relevant to user entities' ICFR.
SOC 2 Report
SOC 2報告書
Trust Services Criteria（5原則）に関する報告
A SOC 2 report evaluates controls based on the Trust Services Criteria.
SOC 3 Report
SOC 3報告書
一般公開用のSOC報告書
A SOC 3 report is a general-use report that may be freely distributed.
Type 1 Report
Type 1報告書
設計の適合性のみ。一時点
A Type 1 report covers the suitability of control design as of a specified date.
Type 2 Report
Type 2報告書
設計 + 運用の有効性。一定期間
A Type 2 report includes both design suitability and operating effectiveness over a period.
Related Party Transactions
関連当事者取引
開示（Disclosure）が最重要アサーション
The auditor should evaluate whether related party transactions have been properly disclosed.
Arm's-Length Transaction
独立第三者間取引
関連当事者でない者同士の通常取引
The auditor assesses whether the transaction was conducted at arm's-length terms.
Loss Contingency
偶発損失
Probable + 見積可能→計上必須
A loss contingency must be accrued when it is probable and reasonably estimable.
Fair Value Measurement
公正価値測定
Level1(市場価格)→Level2(類似資産)→Level3(モデル推定)。Levelが上がるとリスク増
The auditor evaluates whether fair value measurements comply with the applicable financial reporting framework.
Service Organization
受託企業
給与計算等を受託する外部企業。SOC1(ICFR関連)/SOC2(Trust Services)で統制確認
When a client outsources payroll processing, the auditor should consider controls at the service organization.
Audit Committee Charter
監査委員会憲章
監査委員会の権限・責任・構成を定める文書。SOXで独立性要件を規定
The audit committee charter defines the committee's authority, responsibilities, and reporting structure.
Trust Services Criteria
トラストサービス規準
SOC2/3で使用する5規準: Security(必須)+Availability+PI+Confidentiality+Privacy
SOC 2 reports are based on the Trust Services Criteria covering security, availability, and other principles.
Restricted-Use Report
制限使用報告書
特定の利用者のみに配布
A restricted-use report should be issued only to specified parties identified in the report.
General-Use Report
一般使用報告書
制限なく配布可能
A general-use report may be distributed to any party without limitation.
By-Product Report
副産物報告書
監査の過程で発生する報告書。制限使用
A by-product report generated during a financial audit is restricted in its use.
Compliance Audit
準拠性監査
法令・規制への準拠を検証する監査
A compliance audit determines whether the entity followed applicable federal regulations.
Risk of Material Noncompliance (RMN)
重要な非準拠リスク
準拠性監査でのRMM相当
The auditor should assess the risk of material noncompliance when planning a compliance audit.
Government Auditing Standards (GAS/Yellow Book)
政府監査基準
GAAS + 追加要件。置き換えではない
Government Auditing Standards impose requirements beyond GAAS for audits of federal programs.
Financial Audit (GAS)
財務監査（GAS）
財務諸表意見 + ICFR報告 + 法規準拠性報告
A financial audit under GAS requires opinions on both financial statements and compliance.
Performance Audit
業績監査
経済性・効率性・有効性を評価
A performance audit evaluates the economy, efficiency, and effectiveness of a government program.
Single Audit
シングルオーディット
連邦資金$750,000以上/年で必要
A Single Audit is required when an entity expends $750,000 or more in federal awards annually.
Federal Audit Clearinghouse
連邦監査クリアリングハウス
Single Auditの結果の提出先
Single Audit reports must be submitted to the Federal Audit Clearinghouse within 30 days.
Data Collection Form
データ収集フォーム
Single Auditの報告様式
The auditor completes the Data Collection Form as part of the Single Audit reporting package.
Major Program
主要プログラム
Uniform Guidanceに基づきリスクベースで選定。$750K超の連邦交付金で必要
The auditor identifies major programs based on a risk-based approach under the Uniform Guidance.
Schedule of Expenditures of Federal Awards (SEFA)
連邦交付金支出明細表
全連邦交付金の支出一覧。Single Auditで必須添付。CFDA番号で分類
The SEFA lists all federal awards expended during the audit period and is required in a Single Audit.
Questioned Costs
疑義のある費用
文書不備・プログラム要件違反等の費用。連邦政府への返還対象となりうる
Questioned costs arise when expenditures are not supported by documentation or violate program requirements.
Reportable Finding
報告すべき発見事項
Condition+Criteria+Cause+Effectの4要素で記載。Federal Audit Clearinghouseに提出
A reportable finding in a Single Audit must include the condition, criteria, cause, and effect.
Compliance Supplement
準拠性補足資料
OMB発行。各プログラムの12種の準拠要件を記載。監査人の主要参考資料
The Compliance Supplement provides guidance on the compliance requirements for each federal program.
FOB Shipping Point
FOB出荷地点渡し
出荷時点で所有権が買主に移転
Under FOB shipping point, title transfers to the buyer when goods leave the seller's dock.
FOB Destination
FOB到着地点渡し
到着時点で所有権が買主に移転
Under FOB destination, the seller retains ownership until goods reach the buyer's location.
Consignment
積送品
受託者が販売するまで委託者の在庫
Consignment inventory should be included in the consignor's balance sheet until sold.
Cutoff Test
カットオフテスト
期末前後の取引が正しい期間に記録されているか
The auditor performs a cutoff test to verify transactions are recorded in the correct period.
Adjusting Entry
修正仕訳
監査で発見した誤りを修正する仕訳
The auditor proposed an adjusting entry to correct the overstatement of accounts receivable.
Current Ratio
流動比率
流動資産 / 流動負債
A declining current ratio may indicate potential going concern issues for the entity.
Accounts Receivable Turnover
売掛金回転率
売上 / 平均売掛金
A decrease in accounts receivable turnover may suggest collection problems or fictitious sales.
Gross Profit Margin
粗利率
(売上 - COGS) / 売上
An unexpected change in gross profit margin would most likely prompt further analytical inquiry.
Net Realizable Value (NRV)
正味実現可能価額
棚卸資産の評価基準
Inventory should be reported at the lower of cost or net realizable value.
Prior Period Error
過年度の誤謬
I/Sを通さず利益剰余金を直接修正
A prior period error is corrected by restating the beginning balance of retained earnings.
Inventory Observation Techniques
棚卸立会技法
テストカウント・タグ管理・移動監視。Existence/Completenessの両方をテスト
Inventory observation techniques include test counts, tag controls, and monitoring the movement of goods.
Revenue Cutoff
売上のカットオフ
出荷書類と売上計上日を照合。期末前後5営業日が重点対象。試験頻出論点
Revenue cutoff testing examines shipping documents near year-end to verify proper period recognition.
Debt Covenants Analysis
財務制限条項分析
D/Eレシオ等の財務制限条項。違反→期限の利益喪失→GC疑義。cf. Debt Covenant
Debt covenants analysis evaluates whether the entity meets all conditions specified in loan agreements.
Purchase Cutoff
仕入のカットオフ
受領報告書と仕入計上日を照合。売上カットオフとセットで出題されやすい
Purchase cutoff testing ensures that goods received near year-end are recorded in the correct period.
Analytical Review
分析的レビュー
計画段階（必須）+最終段階（必須）+実証手続として任意。Ratio/Trend分析等
Analytical review compares financial data to expectations to identify unusual fluctuations requiring investigation.
Statements on Standards for Accounting and Review Services (SSARS)
会計及びレビュー業務基準
非上場企業のレビュー・調製・作成に適用
SSARS provides the framework for reviews, compilations, and preparations of nonissuers.
Review Engagement
レビュー業務
限定的保証。質問 + 分析的手続
A review engagement consists primarily of inquiries and analytical procedures.
Compilation Engagement
調製業務
保証なし。読むだけ。独立性不要（開示必要）
In a compilation engagement, the accountant is not required to be independent of the entity.
Preparation Engagement
作成業務
保証なし。報告書なし。各ページに免責記載
A preparation engagement does not require issuance of a report on the financial statements.
Limited Assurance
限定的保証
レビューが提供する保証のレベル
A review engagement provides limited assurance that no material modifications are needed.
No Assurance
保証なし
調製・作成が提供する保証のレベル
A compilation engagement provides no assurance on the financial statements.
Substantially Less in Scope than an Audit
監査より本質的に範囲が狭い
レビュー報告書の定型フレーズ
The review report states that a review is substantially less in scope than an audit.
Not Aware of Any Material Modifications
重要な修正の必要性を認識していない
レビュー報告書の結論の定型表現
The accountant's conclusion states being not aware of any material modifications that should be made.
Qualified Conclusion
限定結論
レビューでの限定的な結論
A qualified conclusion is issued when a departure from the framework is material but not pervasive.
Adverse Conclusion
不適正結論
レビューでの否定的な結論
An adverse conclusion is appropriate when the departure is both material and pervasive.
Withdraw from the Engagement
業務からの撤退
レビューで証拠不足の場合。Disclaimerは不可
The accountant should withdraw from the engagement when unable to perform adequate review procedures.
Downgrade
ダウングレード（業務変更）
監査→レビュー等への変更。元の業務に言及しない
When an audit is downgraded to a review, the report should not reference the original engagement.
Management Use Only Financial Statements
経営者使用限定の財務諸表
Preparation業務の一形態。報告書不要・独立性不要。最も保証水準が低い
Management use only financial statements are prepared solely for internal use and not for third parties.
Adverse Engagement
不適正結論の業務
レビューでMaterial+Pervasiveな逸脱→Adverse結論。cf. 監査のAdverse Opinionと対比
An adverse engagement conclusion is issued when a departure from GAAP is both material and pervasive.
Each Page Legend
各ページの免責表示
Preparation業務で各ページに記載必須。「保証なし・監査/レビュー未実施」の旨
In a preparation engagement, each page of the financial statements must include a legend disclaiming assurance.
Omission of Disclosure
開示の省略
Compilation業務で開示省略可。報告書に明記必須。Reviewでは省略不可
A compilation engagement may omit substantially all disclosures if clearly indicated in the report.
Attestation Engagement
証明業務
第三者の主張に対してCPAが報告書を発行
An attestation engagement requires the practitioner to report on a responsible party's assertion.
Statements on Standards for Attestation Engagements (SSAE)
証明業務基準
証明業務に適用される基準
The CPA should perform the engagement in accordance with SSAE.
Examination Engagement
検証業務
合理的保証。監査に相当
An examination engagement provides a level of assurance comparable to an audit.
Review (Attestation)
レビュー（証明）
限定的保証
A review under attestation standards provides limited assurance on the subject matter.
Agreed-Upon Procedures (AUP)
合意された手続
保証なし。手続と発見事項のみ報告
In an agreed-upon procedures engagement, the practitioner reports findings without providing assurance.
Financial Forecast
財務予測
最も可能性の高い結果に基づく。一般利用OK
A financial forecast is based on expected conditions and is appropriate for general use.
Financial Projection
財務計画
仮説的前提（hypothetical）に基づく。利用制限あり
A financial projection includes hypothetical assumptions and is limited to specified parties.
Pro Forma Financial Information
見積財務情報
「もし過去に○○があったら」の情報
Pro forma financial information shows the effect of a transaction as if it had already occurred.
Prospective Financial Statements
予測財務諸表
Forecast + Projectionの総称
Prospective financial statements include both financial forecasts and financial projections.
Hypothetical Assumption
仮説的前提
「もし○○なら」の仮定。Projectionに使う
A hypothetical assumption is a condition not necessarily expected to occur, used in projections.
MD&A (Management Discussion and Analysis)
経営者による財政状態と経営成績の検討と分析
検証・レビューの対象になり得る
A CPA may be engaged to examine or review an entity's MD&A presentation.
Suitable Criteria
適切な規準
証明業務で主題を評価する基準
An attestation engagement requires that the subject matter be evaluated against suitable criteria.
Subject Matter
主題
評価・測定の対象。適切な規準（Suitable Criteria）で評価可能であることが前提
The subject matter of an attestation engagement must be capable of evaluation against suitable criteria.
Responsible Party
責任当事者
主題の作成・測定に責任を負う者。監査でのManagementに相当する立場
The responsible party is the person or entity accountable for the subject matter of the attestation.
Trust Services Criteria (Attestation)
トラストサービス規準（証明）
SOC2/3で使用。Securityは必須+他4つは任意選択。Ch12のTrust Servicesと同じ
Trust Services Criteria used in attestation engagements evaluate security, availability, processing integrity, confidentiality, and privacy.
Practitioner
業務実施者
証明業務を実施するCPA。独立性が必須。cf. 監査のAuditor、レビューのAccountant
The practitioner must be independent and competent to perform the attestation engagement.
IT General Controls (ITGC)
IT全般統制
アプリケーション統制の土台
IT general controls provide the foundation for reliance on application controls.
Application Controls
アプリケーション統制
入力・処理・出力の各段階の統制
Application controls relate to the input, processing, and output of transactions.
Input Controls
入力統制
データ入力の正確性を確保する統制
Input controls are designed to ensure the accuracy and completeness of data entered.
Validity Check
有効性チェック
入力データが有効なコード・値かを確認
A validity check compares input data against a master file of acceptable values.
Limit Check
リミットチェック
入力値が設定された範囲内かを確認
A limit check rejects hours worked exceeding a predetermined maximum per pay period.
Check Digit
チェックディジット
ID番号の正確性を検証する余分な数字
A check digit appended to an employee number detects data entry transposition errors.
Hash Total
ハッシュ合計
意味のない数字の合計で完全性を確認
A hash total of employee numbers verifies that all records were processed completely.
Control Total
コントロール・トータル
金額などの合計で出力の正確性を確認
A control total of dollar amounts ensures accuracy of processed payroll output.
Record Count
レコードカウント
処理されたレコード数で完全性を確認
A record count verifies that no transactions were lost or added during processing.
Parity Check
パリティチェック
データ転送エラーを検出する手法
A parity check detects errors that occur during electronic data transmission.
Echo Check
エコーチェック
入力データを表示して目視確認
An echo check displays entered data on screen for visual verification by the operator.
Computer-Assisted Audit Techniques (CAATs)
コンピュータ利用監査技法
IT環境で監査人が使う5つの技法
The auditor used CAATs to extract and analyze accounts receivable transactions.
Test Data
テスト・データ法
ダミーデータで本番プログラムを検証
The auditor processes test data through the client's live program to evaluate controls.
Integrated Test Facility (ITF)
統合テスト施設
本番環境にダミー部門を作成して検証
An integrated test facility creates a dummy department within the live production system.
Parallel Simulation
並行シミュレーション
監査人のプログラムで同じデータを処理
In parallel simulation, the auditor reprocesses client data using an independent program.
Generalized Audit Software (GAS)
汎用監査ソフトウェア
監査人がデータ抽出・分析に使うソフト
Generalized audit software enables the auditor to select and analyze data from client files.
Embedded Audit Module
組込み監査モジュール
本番システムに組み込む監査用モジュール
An embedded audit module continuously monitors transactions within the production system.
Preventive Control
予防的統制
問題の発生を防ぐ統制。職務分離など
Segregation of duties is an example of a preventive control that mitigates risk of errors.
Detective Control
発見的統制
発生した問題を検出する統制。照合など
Bank reconciliation is an example of a detective control that identifies discrepancies after occurrence.
Systematic Error
体系的エラー
プログラムの誤りで全取引に波及
A systematic error in a program affects all transactions processed by that application.
Audit Trail
監査証跡
取引を追跡できる記録の連鎖
An audit trail allows the auditor to trace a transaction from origin to financial statements.
Access Controls
アクセス統制
論理的アクセス統制（ID/PW/権限）+物理的アクセス統制。職務分離との関連が重要
Access controls restrict unauthorized users from accessing sensitive data and critical system functions.
Firewall
ファイアウォール
外部→内部ネットワークの不正アクセス遮断。ネットワークセキュリティの第一防御線
A firewall is a network security device that monitors and filters incoming and outgoing network traffic.
Encryption
暗号化
データの機密性確保。伝送中（SSL/TLS）+保存中の暗号化。PKIと関連
Encryption converts data into an unreadable format to protect confidentiality during transmission.
Business Continuity Plan
事業継続計画
災害時の業務継続計画。DRP（Disaster Recovery Plan）を包含するより広い概念
A business continuity plan ensures that critical operations can resume promptly after a disaster.
Sampling Risk
サンプリングリスク
サンプルから導いた結論が母集団と異なるリスク
Sampling risk is the risk that the auditor's conclusion based on a sample differs from the population.
Nonsampling Risk
非サンプリングリスク
人間のミス。サンプルサイズを増やしても解消しない
Nonsampling risk cannot be reduced by increasing the sample size.
Statistical Sampling
統計的サンプリング
リスクを数量的に測定可能
Statistical sampling allows the auditor to quantify sampling risk mathematically.
Nonstatistical Sampling
非統計的サンプリング
職業的判断でリスクを評価
Nonstatistical sampling relies on professional judgment rather than mathematical measurement.
Random Selection
乱数抽出
全項目が等しく選ばれる確率を持つ
Random selection gives every item in the population an equal chance of being selected.
Systematic Selection
系統的抽出
等間隔で選ぶ。簡単だがパターンに弱い
Systematic selection uses a fixed interval to choose items from the population.
Block Selection
ブロック抽出
連続する項目を選ぶ。代表性に問題あり
Block selection chooses contiguous items, which may not be representative of the population.
Haphazard Selection
無作為抽出
ランダムに見えるが数学的保証なし
Haphazard selection lacks the mathematical rigor required for statistical sampling.
Stratified Sampling
層化サンプリング
母集団をグループに分けてサンプリング
Stratified sampling divides the population into subgroups to improve sampling efficiency.
Attribute Sampling
属性サンプリング
統制テスト用。逸脱率を推定
Attribute sampling is used in tests of controls to estimate the rate of deviation.
Variables Sampling
変数サンプリング
実証性テスト用。金額を推定
Variables sampling is used in substantive testing to estimate the dollar amount of misstatement.
Probability-Proportional-to-Size (PPS)
金額比例サンプリング
大きな金額が選ばれやすい。過大計上の発見に有効
PPS sampling is most effective for detecting overstatement of account balances.
Tolerable Deviation Rate
許容逸脱率
属性サンプリングで許容する逸脱率の上限
A lower tolerable deviation rate requires a larger sample size in attribute sampling.
Expected Deviation Rate
予想逸脱率
母集団に予想される逸脱率
An increase in the expected deviation rate results in a larger required sample size.
Upper Deviation Rate
上限逸脱率（精度限界）
サンプルから推定した最大の逸脱率
If the upper deviation rate exceeds the tolerable rate, the control cannot be relied upon.
Risk of Assessing CR Too Low
統制リスク過小評価リスク
有効性を損なうリスク
The risk of assessing control risk too low relates to the effectiveness of the audit.
Risk of Assessing CR Too High
統制リスク過大評価リスク
効率性を損なうリスク
The risk of assessing control risk too high affects the efficiency of the audit.
Risk of Incorrect Acceptance
誤った受入リスク
有効性を損なうリスク
The risk of incorrect acceptance is the risk of concluding a balance is fairly stated when it is not.
Risk of Incorrect Rejection
誤った棄却リスク
効率性を損なうリスク
The risk of incorrect rejection leads to unnecessary additional audit procedures.
Discovery Sampling
ディスカバリーサンプリング
不正の発見に特化したサンプリング
Discovery sampling is designed to detect at least one instance of fraud if it exists.
Dual-Purpose Test
二重目的テスト
統制テスト+実証テストの同時実施
A dual-purpose test combines a test of controls and a substantive test on the same sample.
Projected Misstatement
投影誤謬
サンプルの誤謬を母集団に外挿した推定額
The auditor extrapolates sample errors to calculate the projected misstatement for the population.
Tainting Factor
汚染率
PPS法で使用。誤謬額÷記録額。帳簿額より小さい誤謬の影響を測定する比率
The tainting factor is calculated by dividing the misstatement amount by the recorded amount of the sample item.
Confidence Level
信頼水準
1-Sampling Risk。95%なら誤った結論の確率は5%。信頼水準↑→サンプル数↑
A higher confidence level requires a larger sample size to reduce sampling risk.
Tolerable Misstatement
許容虚偽表示額
Performance Materialityと連動。金額↓→サンプル数↑。許容率が低いほど厳格
A lower tolerable misstatement amount results in a larger required sample size for substantive testing.
AICPA Code of Professional Conduct
AICPA職業行為規範
CPAの行動規範。6つのPrinciples
All AICPA members must comply with the AICPA Code of Professional Conduct when performing professional services.
Independence in Fact
精神的独立性
実際に独立した判断ができる状態
A CPA must maintain independence in fact by avoiding any bias in professional judgment.
Independence in Appearance
外観的独立性
第三者から見て独立に見える状態
Owning client stock impairs independence in appearance regardless of the auditor's actual objectivity.
Covered Member
カバードメンバー
独立性規定の適用対象者
A covered member includes the engagement partner and any individual in the chain of command.
Direct Financial Interest
直接的経済的利害
金額不問で独立性侵害。1株でもアウト
Any direct financial interest in an attest client, regardless of amount, impairs independence.
Indirect Financial Interest
間接的経済的利害
Materialな場合のみ独立性侵害
An indirect financial interest through a mutual fund impairs independence only if material.
Threats and Safeguards Approach
脅威とセーフガードのアプローチ
5つの脅威を識別し、セーフガードで対応
Under the threats and safeguards approach, the auditor identifies threats and applies safeguards to reduce them.
Self-Review Threat
自己レビューの脅威
自分の仕事をチェックする状況
A self-review threat exists when the auditor audits financial statements they helped prepare.
Advocacy Threat
擁護の脅威
クライアントの立場を代弁する状況
An advocacy threat arises when a CPA promotes a client's stock in a public offering.
Familiarity Threat
馴れ合いの脅威
長期の関係で客観性が低下
A familiarity threat may develop from a long association between the auditor and client management.
Intimidation Threat
脅迫の脅威
圧力を受けて判断が歪む状況
An intimidation threat occurs when management pressures the auditor to issue a favorable opinion.
Self-Interest Threat
自己利益の脅威
経済的利害で判断が歪む状況
A self-interest threat may arise when audit fees represent a large portion of the firm's revenue.
Contingent Fee
成功報酬
Attest serviceでは禁止。Amended return refund claimでは許可
A CPA is prohibited from charging a contingent fee for an attest engagement.
Commission
紹介手数料
Attest clientからの受領は禁止
Accepting a commission for referring products to an attest client is prohibited.
Confidentiality
守秘義務
クライアント情報の保護。Subpoenaは例外
A CPA must maintain confidentiality of client information obtained during an engagement.
Subpoena
召喚状
裁判所の命令。守秘義務に優先
A CPA may disclose confidential client information when responding to a valid subpoena.
Partner Rotation
パートナーのローテーション
Lead partner: 5年担当、5年冷却
SOX requires partner rotation of the lead audit partner after five consecutive years.
Cooling-Off Period
冷却期間
ローテーション後の待機期間
After rotation, the lead partner must observe a five-year cooling-off period.
Audit Committee
監査委員会
SOXで報告義務の対象。独立取締役で構成
The auditor is required to report critical audit matters to the audit committee.
Acts Discreditable
信用を傷つける行為
CPAの職業的評判を損なう行為
Retaining client records to enforce fee payment is considered an acts discreditable violation.
Quality Control
品質管理
事務所レベルの監査品質確保の仕組み
A firm's system of quality control should include policies for engagement performance and monitoring.
Peer Review
ピアレビュー
他の事務所による品質管理のレビュー
Firms enrolled in an AICPA practice section must undergo a peer review every three years.
Engagement Partner
業務執行パートナー
個別の監査契約の最終責任者
The engagement partner is responsible for the overall quality of each audit engagement.
Tax Practice
税務業務
CPAの税務サービス。独立性不要（非証明業務）。Reasonable basisがあれば納税者立場で主張可
In tax practice, a CPA may advocate for a client's position if there is a reasonable basis for it.
Advertising
広告
False/Misleadingでなければ許可。報酬の比較広告も可。旧基準より大幅に緩和
CPAs may advertise their services as long as the advertising is not false or misleading.
Solicitation
勧誘
Coercive（強要的）でなければ許可。ダイレクトメール等も可。cf. Advertisingと併せて出題
Solicitation of prospective clients is permitted if not conducted in a coercive manner.
Form of Organization
事務所の組織形態
LLC/LLP/PC等。州法に準拠。非CPA所有も一部州で認められる場合あり
A CPA firm may organize as an LLC or LLP in accordance with applicable state law.
Audit Data Analytics (ADA)
監査データ分析
既存の監査基準の枠組み内で使うツール
Audit data analytics are used within the existing audit framework to enhance risk assessment procedures.
Regression Analysis
回帰分析
変数間の統計的関係を数式で表現
The auditor used regression analysis to identify an unexpected relationship between sales and receivables.
R-squared (R²)
決定係数
回帰モデルの説明力を0-1で示す
An R-squared value close to 1.0 indicates the model explains most of the variation in the data.
Benford's Law
ベンフォードの法則
先頭桁の分布パターンで不正を検出
The auditor applied Benford's Law to accounts payable amounts to detect potential fraud.
Primary Key
主キー
テーブル内のレコードを一意に識別
The invoice number serves as the primary key that uniquely identifies each record in the table.
Foreign Key
外部キー
他テーブルの主キーを参照する値
The customer ID in the orders table is a foreign key referencing the customer master table.
JOIN
結合
複数テーブルを関連付けるSQL操作
The auditor performed a JOIN operation to match purchase orders with receiving reports.
Data Cleansing
データクレンジング
分析前にデータ品質を改善するプロセス
Data cleansing should be performed before analysis to remove duplicates and correct errors.
Continuous Auditing
継続的監査
監査人がリアルタイムで監査手続を実行
Continuous auditing allows the auditor to perform procedures on transactions in real time.
Continuous Monitoring
継続的モニタリング
経営者がリアルタイムで統制を監視
Continuous monitoring is performed by management to evaluate the effectiveness of internal controls.
Outlier
外れ値
異常なデータポイント。追加調査が必要
The auditor investigated each outlier identified in the revenue data for potential misstatement.
Big Data
ビッグデータ
Volume, Velocity, Varietyの3V
Big data is characterized by its volume, velocity, and variety of information sources.
Nominal Scale
名義尺度
カテゴリ分類のみの測定尺度
Gender classification is an example of a nominal scale that only categorizes data.
Ordinal Scale
順序尺度
順序ありだが間隔不明
Customer satisfaction ratings of "high, medium, low" represent an ordinal scale of measurement.
Interval Scale
間隔尺度
等間隔だが絶対ゼロなし
Temperature measured in Fahrenheit is an example of an interval scale with no absolute zero.
Ratio Scale
比率尺度
絶対ゼロあり。全演算可能
Dollar amounts of account balances are measured on a ratio scale with an absolute zero point.
Data Visualization
データ可視化
ダッシュボード・グラフで異常値を視覚的に発見。CAATs活用の一形態
Data visualization tools help the auditor identify trends and anomalies in large data sets.
Correlation Analysis
相関分析
相関係数r: -1〜+1。分析的手続で期待値との関係評価に使用。因果関係とは別
Correlation analysis measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables.
Pivot Table
ピボットテーブル
取引データを取引先別・月別等で集計。異常パターンの識別に有用
The auditor used a pivot table to summarize transactions by vendor, month, and amount.
Data Mining
データマイニング
大量データからパターン・異常を自動検出。不正検出やリスク評価に活用
Data mining techniques can help auditors detect unusual patterns indicative of fraud.
Scarcity
希少性
無限の欲求 vs 有限の資源。経済学の大前提
Scarcity is the fundamental economic problem of unlimited wants exceeding limited resources.
Shortage
不足
特定の価格水準で需要が供給を超える状態
A shortage occurs when quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied at the current price.
Opportunity Cost
機会費用
選ばなかった次善の選択肢の価値
The opportunity cost of attending college includes the salary forgone during that period.
Leading Indicators
先行指標
景気に先行して動く。GC評価に有用
Stock market prices are leading indicators that change before the economy begins to follow a trend.
Coincident Indicators
一致指標
景気と同時に動く指標
Personal income and industrial production are examples of coincident indicators.
Lagging Indicators
遅行指標
景気に遅れて動く指標
The average duration of unemployment is a lagging indicator that changes after the economy has shifted.
Fair Value
公正価値
市場参加者間の取引価格
Fair value is the price received to sell an asset in an orderly transaction between market participants.
Production Possibility Frontier (PPF)
生産可能性フロンティア
2財の最大生産組合せ。曲線上=効率的、内側=非効率、外側=達成不可。機会費用を反映
The production possibility frontier illustrates the maximum combinations of two goods an economy can produce.
Comparative Advantage
比較優位
機会費用が低い財に特化→貿易で互いに利益。cf. Absolute Advantageとの違いが頻出
A country has a comparative advantage in producing a good if its opportunity cost is lower than others.
Absolute Advantage
絶対優位
同資源でより多く生産。貿易の利益にはComparative Advantageの方が重要
A country has an absolute advantage when it can produce more of a good with the same resources.
Trade Surplus
貿易黒字
輸出 > 輸入。経常収支の黒字。cf. Trade Deficitと対。自国通貨高の要因
A trade surplus occurs when a country's exports exceed its imports during a given period.
Trade Deficit
貿易赤字
輸入 > 輸出。経常収支の赤字。資本収支の黒字と表裏一体の関係
A trade deficit occurs when a country's imports exceed its exports during a given period.
Capital Account
資本収支
国際間の資本移動（株式・債券・直接投資等）を記録。経常収支と合計でゼロ
The capital account records international transactions involving the purchase and sale of financial assets.
Law of Demand
需要の法則
価格↑→需要量↓
The law of demand states that as price increases, quantity demanded decreases, ceteris paribus.
Law of Supply
供給の法則
価格↑→供給量↑
Under the law of supply, producers are willing to supply more at higher prices.
Elasticity
弾力性
%変化に対する反応度。代替財が多いほど弾力的
Elasticity measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price.
Price Elasticity of Demand
需要の価格弾力性
弾力的ならば値下げで売上増
If price elasticity of demand is greater than 1, a price decrease will increase total revenue.
Cross-Price Elasticity
交差弾力性
正なら代替財、負なら補完財
A positive cross-price elasticity between two goods indicates they are substitutes.
Income Elasticity
所得弾力性
正なら正常財、負なら劣等財
A negative income elasticity of demand indicates the good is an inferior good.
Substitute Goods
代替財
一方の価格↑→他方の需要↑
Butter and margarine are substitute goods because an increase in the price of one raises demand for the other.
Complementary Goods
補完財
一方の価格↑→他方の需要↓
Printers and ink cartridges are complementary goods typically consumed together.
Inferior Goods
劣等財
所得↑→需要↓
Demand for inferior goods decreases as consumer income rises.
Normal Goods
正常財
所得↑→需要↑
Demand for normal goods increases when consumer income increases.
Equilibrium
均衡
需要と供給が一致する点
Market equilibrium is reached when the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied.
Price Ceiling
価格上限
均衡以下で機能→Shortage
A price ceiling set below the equilibrium price will result in a shortage.
Price Floor
価格下限
均衡以上で機能→Surplus
A price floor set above the equilibrium price will result in a surplus.
Marginal Cost (MC)
限界費用
追加1単位の生産に伴う費用増加分
A firm maximizes profit by producing where marginal cost equals marginal revenue.
Average Total Cost (ATC)
平均総費用
TC / Q
Average total cost is calculated by dividing total cost by the quantity of output produced.
Economies of Scale
規模の経済
生産規模↑→平均費用↓
Economies of scale occur when increasing production leads to a lower average cost per unit.
Diseconomies of Scale
規模の不経済
生産規模↑→平均費用↑
Diseconomies of scale result when a firm becomes too large and average costs begin to rise.
Perfect Competition
完全競争
多数企業・同質製品・Price Taker
In perfect competition, firms are price takers and sell homogeneous products.
Monopoly
独占
1社・高い参入障壁・Price Maker
A monopoly exists when a single firm controls the entire market with high barriers to entry.
Oligopoly
寡占
少数企業・相互依存
An oligopoly is characterized by a few dominant firms whose decisions are interdependent.
Monopolistic Competition
独占的競争
多数企業・差別化・自由参入
Monopolistic competition features many firms selling differentiated products with free entry.
Externality
外部性
第三者への意図しない影響
Pollution from a factory is a negative externality that imposes costs on third parties.
Public Goods
公共財
非排除的かつ非競合的
National defense is an example of public goods that are nonexcludable and nonrivalrous.
Consumer Surplus
消費者余剰
支払意思額 - 実際の支払額
Consumer surplus is the difference between what consumers are willing to pay and the market price.
Producer Surplus
生産者余剰
受取額 - 最低受取意思額
Producer surplus is the difference between the market price and the minimum price sellers would accept.
Deadweight Loss
死荷重
市場の非効率により失われた総余剰
A price ceiling creates deadweight loss by preventing mutually beneficial transactions.
Giffen Goods
ギッフェン財
価格↑→需要量↑の例外。所得効果が代替効果を上回る劣等財の極端なケース
Giffen goods violate the law of demand because quantity demanded increases as price rises.
Marginal Revenue
限界収入
追加1単位の販売による収入増。利潤最大化条件: MR=MC。完全競争ではMR=P
A firm maximizes profit where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.
Shutdown Point
操業停止点
P < AVCなら短期で操業停止。cf. Break-Even(P=ATC)との違いが頻出
A firm should shut down in the short run when the price falls below average variable cost.
Break-Even Point
損益分岐点
TR=TC、経済的利益=0（会計上の利益はあり）。P=ATCの点。cf. Shutdown Pointと対比
At the break-even point, total revenue equals total cost and the firm earns zero economic profit.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
国内総生産
一定期間内に国内で生産された最終財の市場価値
Gross domestic product (GDP) measures the total market value of all final goods produced within a country.
Nominal GDP
名目GDP
当年の価格で計算
Nominal GDP is calculated using current-year prices and does not adjust for inflation.
Real GDP
実質GDP
基準年の価格で計算。インフレ調整済み
Real GDP is adjusted for inflation by using base-year prices to measure economic output.
M1 Money Supply
M1マネーサプライ
現金 + 要求払い預金 + トラベラーズチェック
The M1 money supply includes currency in circulation, demand deposits, and traveler's checks.
Money Multiplier
マネーマルチプライヤー
1 / 準備率。信用創造能力
The money multiplier is calculated as 1 divided by the reserve requirement ratio.
Open Market Operations
公開市場操作
FRBの最頻使用ツール。国債の売買
Open market operations are the Fed's most frequently used tool to control the money supply.
Discount Rate
公定歩合
FRBが民間銀行に貸す金利
The discount rate is the interest rate the Federal Reserve charges banks for short-term loans.
Reserve Requirement
準備率
銀行が保有すべき準備金の割合
Increasing the reserve requirement reduces the money multiplier and contracts the money supply.
Federal Reserve (Fed)
連邦準備制度
米国の中央銀行。金融政策を実施
The Federal Reserve is responsible for implementing monetary policy in the United States.
Fiscal Policy
財政政策
政府の税・支出による経済調整
Fiscal policy involves government decisions on taxation and spending to influence the economy.
Monetary Policy
金融政策
FRBによるマネーサプライ・金利の操作
The Fed uses monetary policy to control inflation by adjusting interest rates and money supply.
Crowding-Out Effect
クラウディングアウト効果
政府借入→金利上昇→民間投資減少
The crowding-out effect occurs when increased government borrowing raises interest rates and reduces private investment.
Recession
リセッション（景気後退）
6ヶ月以上の経済活動の持続的低下
A recession is defined as a sustained decline in economic activity lasting more than six months.
Recessionary Gap
リセッショナリーギャップ
実際GDP < 潜在GDP
A recessionary gap exists when actual GDP falls below potential GDP.
Inflation
インフレーション
物価水準の持続的上昇
Inflation is a sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services.
Deflation
デフレーション
物価水準の持続的下落
Deflation is characterized by a sustained decrease in the general price level.
Consumer Price Index (CPI)
消費者物価指数
異なる時点の相対物価を比較
The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is used to compare relative prices across different time periods.
Structural Unemployment
構造的失業
スキルのミスマッチが原因
Structural unemployment results from a mismatch between workers' skills and available job requirements.
Frictional Unemployment
摩擦的失業
転職活動中の一時的な失業
Frictional unemployment occurs when workers are temporarily between jobs during a normal job search.
Cyclical Unemployment
循環的失業
景気後退による需要不足が原因
Cyclical unemployment is caused by insufficient aggregate demand during an economic downturn.
Natural Rate of Unemployment
自然失業率
構造的 + 摩擦的失業率
The natural rate of unemployment includes only frictional and structural unemployment.
Phillips Curve
フィリップス曲線
インフレ率と失業率の短期的トレードオフ
The Phillips Curve illustrates the short-run inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment.
Aggregate Demand
総需要
経済全体の財・サービスへの総需要
An increase in government spending shifts the aggregate demand curve to the right.
Aggregate Supply
総供給
経済全体の財・サービスの総供給
A decrease in input costs shifts the aggregate supply curve to the right.
Exchange Rate
為替レート
2通貨の交換比率
The exchange rate determines the price of one currency expressed in terms of another.
Appreciation
通貨高
自国通貨の価値上昇
Appreciation of the domestic currency makes imports cheaper and exports more expensive.
Depreciation (Currency)
通貨安
自国通貨の価値下落
Depreciation of the domestic currency increases the cost of imported goods.
Floating Exchange Rate
変動相場制
市場の需給で為替レートが決定
Under a floating exchange rate system, currency values are determined by market supply and demand.
Liquidity Preference Theory
流動性選好理論
金利と貨幣需要の関係（ケインズ理論）
The liquidity preference theory explains that interest rates are determined by the supply and demand for money.
GDP Deflator
GDPデフレーター
名目GDP/実質GDP x 100。CPIと違い全品目対象。インフレ測定の包括的指標
The GDP deflator measures the overall price level by comparing nominal GDP to real GDP.
Balance of Payments
国際収支
経常収支+資本収支+金融収支の合計。理論上はゼロ。誤差脱漏で調整
The balance of payments records all economic transactions between a country and the rest of the world.
Terms of Trade
交易条件
輸出価格指数/輸入価格指数。上昇=有利化（少ない輸出で多くの輸入が可能）
An improvement in the terms of trade means a country can purchase more imports per unit of exports.
Stagflation
スタグフレーション
景気停滞+インフレの同時発生。AS左シフト（供給ショック）が原因。1970年代の石油危機が代表例
Stagflation occurs when an economy experiences stagnant growth and rising inflation simultaneously.
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